: 


THE  PHILIPPINES 


UNDER  SPANISH  AND  AMERICAN 
RULES 


BY 

C.  H.  FORBES-LINDSAY 
\\ 

AUTHOR    OF 

"India,   Past  and  Present",    "America's  Insular  Possessions", 
"Panama,  the  Isthmus  and  the  Canal",  etc. 


ILLUSTRATED 


PHILADELPHIA 

THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  CO. 

1906 


Ft 


COPYRIGHT,  1906 
BY  THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  COMPANY 


PREFACE. 

Prior  to  1898,  when  America  knocked  rudely  at  her 
doors,  the  Philippine  Archipelago  was  one  of  the  most 
secluded  portions  of  the  earth.  Only  within  the 
present  generation  have  its  ports  been  open  to  the 
commerce  of  the  world.  When  the  Archipelago 
passed  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  there 
was  not  an  American  firm  in  Manila.  The  Islands 
have  never  been  brought  within  the  ever-extending 
bounds  of  tourist  travel  and  are  not  yet  upon  a  main 
steamship  route,  but  are  reached  by  a  branch  line 
from  Hong  Kong. 

Before  the  Spanish- American  War  brought  us  into 
intimate  relations  with  the  Philippine  Islands,  little 
had  been  published  relating  to  them  in  this  country 
or,  indeed,  in  the  English  language.  It  is  not  strange, 
then,  that  the  average  American  knew  almost  nothing 
about  this  country  which  is  destined  to  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  history  of  the  United  States,  until 
his  newspapers  and  magazines  began  to  educate  him. 
Tiv  this  time  we  are  well  awake  to  the  fact  that  the 
Filipinos  are  not  naked  savages  and  that  their  country 
is  something  more  than  the  place  from  which  we  get 
Manila  hemp.  It  is  beginning  to  dawn  upon  us  that 
the  Filipinos  and  the  Philippines  represent  great  pos- 
sibilities, but  few  of  us  have  an  adequate  conception 
of  how  great  they  are,  or  of  the  vast  field  for  Amer- 
ican endeavor  and  enterprise  afforded  by  them. 

In  the  past  few  years  the  Philippines  have  evoked 
a  constantly  growing  interest  which  most  often  takes 
the  form  of  the  concrete  query:  "Are  the  people  good 
for  anything  and  what  are  the  islands  worth?"  I 
have  made  an  effort  to  answer  this  question  with  some 
degree  of  definiteness. 


vi  THE  PHILIPPINES 

For  my  statements  regarding  industries,  resources, 
etc.,  I  have  depended,  in  the  main,  upon  the  ample 
sources  of  information  afforded  by  the  U.  S.  War 
Department,  having  been  taught  by  experience  to 
regard  them  as  the  most  reliable, 

I  have  avoided  polemic  discussion,  because  there 
are  others  much  better  qualified  than  myself  to  pass 
opinion  on  the  controversial  questions  connected  with 
the  Philippines ;  but  that  the  reader,  who  will  natu- 
rally look  for  some  such  expressions  in  a  book  of  this 
kind,  may  be  satisfied,  I  have  fully  remedied  the 
deficiency  on  my  part  by  inserting  a  chapter  of  ex- 
tracts from  public  addresses  delivered  by  the  Honor- 
able William  H.  Taft,  who  is  recognized  as  the  fore- 
most authority  on  our  insular  possessions  in  the 
Pacific.  These  addresses  are  the  most  direct,  logical, 
and  consistent  statements  of  the  conditions  and  pros- 
pects in  the  Philippine  Islands,  as  well  as  the  most 
clear  and  unequivocal  expression  of  the  policy  of  the 
American  Government  towards  those  islands.  I  much 
regret  that  the  quotations  are,  necessarily,  limited  to 
a  few  brief  extracts  and  strongly  recommend  the 
reading  of  the  addresses  in  extenso  to  all  who  would 
have  a  clear  idea  of  our  relations  to  the  Philippines 
and  the  problems  involved  in  their  administration. 

I  take  this  opportunity  to  acknowledge  my  obliga- 
tions to  Colonel  Clarence  R.  Edwards,  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  and  the  Assistant  Chief, 
Captain  Frank  Mclntyre,  who  have  rendered  me  val- 
uable assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume. 

Philadelphia,  April,  1906. 


CONTENTS 

THE  PHILIPPINES 


CHAP.  PAGE. 

I.     GENERAL  DESCRIPTION    17 

II.     THE  INHABITANTS   75 

III.     EARLY  HISTORY    119 

IV.     THE  PASSING  OF  SPANISH  DOMINION   161 

V.     AMERICAN   ADMINISTRATION    203 

VI.     COMMERCE    241 

VII.     AGRICULTURE    285 

VIII.     AGRICULTURE    ( Continued)    323 

IX.     PUBLIC  LANDS,  TIMBER,  MINERALS,  ETC 357 

X.     MANILA,  OLD  AND  NEW   393 

XI.     LUZON    431 

XII.     THE  VISAYAS    463 

XIII.  MINDANAO  AND  SULU   491 

XIV.  VITAL  ISSUES   517 

INDEX  .  561 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

THE  PHILIPPINES 


PAGE. 

MANILA  BAY  Frontispiece. 

HON.  WILLIAM  H.  TAFT Facing  Dedication. 

THE  HIGHLANDS  OF  BENGUET 22 

A  VISAYAN  FAMILY 54 

MANILA  CATHEDRAL   78 

A  HEAD  HUNTER   110 

CHINESE  MESTIZOS    126 

LOMA  CHURCH 150 

FILIPINA  WOMEN  174 

THE  YOUNG  IDEA  190 

OFFICE  OF  A  JUSTICE 214 

MANILA  HEMP   230 

THE  BUSY  PASIG  254 

CLEANING  ABACA   270 

A  ROPE  WALK   294 

FARMING  IN  THE  PHILIPPINES   310 

THRESHING  RICE   350 

A  STREET  SCENE 382 

TAAL  VOLCANO   .  390 


PRIMITIVE   TRANSPORTATION    422 

A  HUMBLE  HOME   430 

ANTIQUE  DEFENSES   454 

A    MESTIZA    4G2 

A  WEAVER   486 

A  VILLAGE  SCENE   510 

NATIVE  POLICE   522 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION 


X  -  i  n 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION. 

Physical  Features — Luzon — Taal  Lake  and  Volcano — The 
Story  of  an  Eruption — Mayon  Volcano — Rivers  of  Luzon 
— Cagayan  and  Isabela — Abra,  Lepanto-Bontoc,  and  Nueva 
Vizcaya — I  locos  Norte,  I  locos  Sur  and  La  Union — Benguet 
— Pangasinan — Zanibales — Bataan — Tarlac — Pampanga  — 
Nueva  Ecija — Bulacan — Rizal — Laguna — Cavite  —  Batan- 
gas — Tayabas  — Ambos  Camarines  —  Albay  —  Sorsogon  — 
Railroad  Extension — Marinduque — The  Island  of  Mindoro 
— The  Visayan  Group — Masbate — Samar — Leyte — Bohol — 
Cebu — Negros — Panay — Paragua — Mindanao — Sulu — Tawi 
Tawi — Fauna — Flora — Vegetable  Products  of  Commercial 
Value — Minerals — Climate. 

The  Philippine  Archipelago  extends  from  4°  40' 
to  21°  10'  north  latitude  and  lies  between  the  meridi- 
ans of  116°  40'  and  126°  34'  east  longitude.  The 
chain  of  islands  commences  in  the  north  at  a  point 
within  one  hundred  miles  of  Formosa  and  terminates 
with  the  Sulu  Group,  lying  close  to  the  northeast 
coast  of  Borneo.  The  nearest  land  011  the  east  is, 
one  of  the  Pelew  Islands,  in  the  possession  of  Ger- 
many, five  hundred  and  ten  miles  distant,  and  on  the 
west,  Cochin  China,  distant  five  hundred  and  fifteen 
miles. 

2  (17) 


18 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


The  most  recent  official  enumeration  gives  a  total 
of  3,141  islands  to  the  Archipelago.  Three-fourths 
of  that  number  have  areas  of  less  than  a  square  mile 
each;  one-half  are  unnamed;  and  by  far  the  majority 
are  uninhabited.  The  aggregate  area  of  the  islands 
is  115,000  square  miles;  that  is,  greater  than  the 
combined  areas  of  the  States  of  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware. 

In  the  broadest  territorial  division,  the  principal 
islands  are  thus  classified: 

Island.                                              Area  in  Sq.  Miles.  Population. 

1.  Luzon    40,969  3,798,507 

2.  Marinduque     352  50,001 

3.  Mindoro     3,851  28,361 

4.  Paragua,  or  Palawan 4,027  10,918 

5.  Visayan  Islands. 

Masbate    1,236  29,451 

Sauiar    5,031  222,690 

Leyte   2,722  357,641 

Bohol     1,141  243,148 

Cebu     1,762  592,247 

Negros     4,881  460,776 

Panay    4,611  743,646 

6.  Mindanao    36,292  499,634 

7.  Suhi  Archipelago. 

Sulu,  or  Jolo 326  44,718 

Tawi  Tawi 232  1,179 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES. 


The  prevailing  physical  features  of  the  Philippines 
are  mountain  and  forest.  There  are  several  broad 
valleys  intersected  by  numerous  streams,  but  ex- 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION.  19 

tensive  plains  and  large  rivers  comparable  with  con- 
tinental standards  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  islands. 
The  Philippines  have  no  deserts,  nor  even  barren 
lava  beds.  Everywhere  vegetation  flourishes  in  ex- 
uberant variety.  Very  little  of  the  scenery  can  be 
fairly  termed  grand,  but  almost  everywhere  it  is  made 
beautiful  by  the  diversity  and  abundance  of  vegeta- 
tion which  covers  the  hills  and  the  lower  slopes  of 
the  mountains.  About  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
surface  of  the  islands  is  covered  with  forest,  including 
some  of  the  most  valuable  species  of  trees  in  the  world. 

The  Archipelago  is  of  volcanic  origin,  evidences 
of  which  are  everywhere  to  be  found  in  extinct  or 
dormant  volcanoes,  at  least  ten  having  records  of 
activity. 

To  such  an  extent  are  the  shores  of  the  islands 
indented  that,  although  their  area  is  but  one  twenty- 
sixth  that  of  the  mainland  of  the  United  States,  the 
coast  line  of  the  latter  is  less  than  half  that  of  the 
Philippine  Islands.  Such  a  formation  would  gen- 
erally indicate  the  presence  of  a  great  number  of  har- 
bors, but  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  are  comparatively 
few  of  present  commercial  utility.  Shoals  and  reefs ; 
the  absence  of  lights  and  channel  buoys;  and  the 
lack  of  reliable  charts  render  many  deep  water  anchor- 
ages impracticable  for  vessels  of  heavy  burthen. 
Most  of  the  anchorages  are  only  available  during  a 
portion  of  the  year  owing  to  the  alternating  character 
of  the  winds.  From  June  to  October  the  wind  sets 


20  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

in  from  the  southwest,  and  during  the  remainder  of 
the  year  the  northwest  monsoons  prevail.  There  are, 
however,  some  exceptionally  good  harbors,  that  of 
Manila,  upon  which  extensive  improvements  are  rap- 
idly progressing  toward  completion,  being  one  of 
the  very  best  in  the  Orient.  With  the  exception  of 
Bohol,  each  of  the  principal  islands  has  at  least  one 
harbor  capable  of  accommodating  vessels  of  the  great- 
est draft. 

There  are  but  three  rivers  attaining  a  length  of  two 
hundred  miles,  namely,  the  Rio  Grande  de  Cagayan, 
of  Luzon,  and  the  Rio  Grande  and  Agusan,  of  Min- 
danao. Aside  from  these,  and  the  Pampanga,  the 
Agno  and  the  Abra,  all  of  Luzon,  there  are  no  rivers 
in  the  islands  exceeding  a  length  of  one  hundred 
miles.  However,  economic  importance  cannot  al- 
ways be  gauged  by  figures.  The  Pasig,  one  of  the 
shortest  rivers  in  the  country,  carries  the  greatest 
commerce.  It  may  be  mentioned  here  as  a  curious 
fact,  that  the  Lanao,  of  Negros,  although  only  nine 
miles  in  total  length,  has  a  width  of  one  thousand 
feet  and  is  twenty  feet  deep. 

LUZON. 

Luzon  is  the  chief  island  of  the  Archipelago,  and 
has  contained  the  seat  of  government  since  the  time 
of  Legaspi.  It  is  paramount  in  the  matters  of  area, 
population  and  development.  Its  greatest  length 
from  northwest  to  southeast  is  four  hundred  and 


LUZON.  21 

eighty-nine  miles,  and  its  utmost  breadth  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-eight  miles.  Its  principal  mountain 
range  is  the  Sierra  Madre,  which,  commencing  in 
the  extreme  northeast  corner  of  the  island,  follows 
an  unbroken  course  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
along  the  eastern  coast  to  the  Laguna  de  Bay.  The 
general  elevation  of  the  Sierra  Madre  is  from  3,500 
to  4,500  feet,  the  latter  figures  being  exceeded  by  a 
few  summits.  This  range  forms  the  eastern  bound- 
ary of  the  great  valley  of  the  Cagayan,  one  of  the 
two  large  and  fertile  stretches  of  comparative  level 
on  the  island.  Its  length  is  one  hundred  and  sixty 
miles  and  its  breadth  fifty  miles.  On  the  west  the 
valley  is  bounded  by  the  conglomeration  of  elevations 
and  short  mountain  ranges  styled  the  Caraballos  Oc- 
cidentales,  covering  an  area  two  hundred  miles  in 
length  by  seventy  miles  in  breadth.  This  complex 
system  embraces  several  peaks  exceeding  6,000  feet 
in  altitude.  At  the  south,  as  at  the  north,  a  sub- 
sidiary range  effects  a  junction  between  the  Cara- 
ballos Occidentals  and  the  Sierra  Madre,  so  that 
these  two  mountain  systems  convert  the  northern  part 
of  Luzon  into  a  basin  of  which  they  form  the  sides. 

The  Zambales  range  extends  the  length  of  the  prov- 
ince of  that  name,  closely  following  the  coast.  It  in- 
cludes many  summits  higher  than  5,000  feet,  and  for 
a  considerable  distance  maintains  an  average  elevation 
of  4,000  feet.  Extending  fifty  miles  eastward  from 
this  range  and  southward  to  the  distance  of  one  hun- 


22  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

dred  and  fifty  miles  from  Lingayen  Gulf,  is  a  great, 
flat  depression  traversed  by  the  rivers  Pampanga, 
Agno  and  Pasig,  and  by  innumerable  small  streams. 
A  great  deal  of  the  land  is  alluvial  soil.  The  valley 
is  extremely  fertile,  and  supports  1,750,000  souls, 
being  about  two-fifths  of  the  population  of  the  entire 
island.  At  the  southern  end  of  this  valley  is  Laguna 
de  Bay,  a  large,  shallow  body  of  water  at  no  point 
more  than  twenty  feet  in  depth.  It  is  the  source  of 
the  Pasig,  at  the  mouth  of  which  stands  Manila.  The 
shores  of  Laguna  de  Bay  are  thickly  settled.  A  very 
large  traffic  is  carried  on  amongst  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages along  its  littoral  and  between  them  and  Manila. 
Southern  Luzon  has  no  defined  mountain  system, 
but  grouped  summits  and  isolated  volcanic  peaks  are 
scattered  over  its  surface. 

TAAL    LAKE    AND    VOLCANO. 

Laguna  de  Bombon,  or  Lake  Taal,  is  one  of  the 
most  curious  natural  formations  in  the  wrorld.  It  is 
an  immense  crater,  seventeen  miles  long  by  twelve 
miles  in  breadth,  surrounded,  except  upon  the  south- 
ern end,  by  a  clearly  defined  rim  several  hundred 
feet  in  height,  towards  which  the  neighboring  coun- 
try gradually  slopes.  Upon  the  edge  of  the  lake 
are  several  elevations  of  volcanic  character,  and  from 
an  island  in  the  center  rises,  to  a  height  of  one  thou- 
sand feet,  an  active  volcano,  several  eruptions  of 
which  have  been  recorded.  Different  theories  have 


TAAL  LAKE  AND  VOLCANO.  23 

been  advanced  by  scientific  observers  to  account  for 
the  phenomenon  of  Lake  Bombon.  Father  Zuniga 
expressed  the  opinion  that  the  lake  originated  from 
the  collapse  of  a  volcanic  cone.  Doctor  Becker  at- 
tributes the  present  formation  to  the  combined  action 
of  eruptions  and  cataclysms,  and  concludes  that  the 
peak  "Taal  itself  is  the  small  inner  cone  of  a  great 
crater  of  explosion."  Mr.  II.  D.  Caskey,  B.  S., 
says :  "My  own  notes  and  observations  in  these  prov- 
inces tend  to  the  belief  that  Taal  was  unquestionably, 
at  a  prehistoric  period,  very  high  and  of  tremendous 
activity ;  that  it  stood  partly  surrounded,  if  not 
wholly,  by  a  stretch  of  the  sea  extending  from  the 
Gulf  of  Batangas  to  the  Lingayen  Gulf;  that  during 
its  activity  large  quantities  of  volcanic  ejecta  fell  into 
this  island  sea,  forming  the  more  or  less  stratified  de- 
posits of  tuff  now  furnishing  much  of  the  rich  soil 
of  the  provinces  of  Batangas,  La  Laguna,  Cavite, 
Rizal,  and  Bulacan ;  that  an  explosion,  or  a  series  of 
them,  blew  out  the  entire  upper  cone,  leaving  the  rim 
of  the  present  boundaries  of  the  Lake  Taal;  and 
that  subsequently  minor  cones  were  formed  and  this 
region  was  gradually  raised  to  its  present  level." 
During  historic  times  this  volcano  has  undergone  the 
most  remarkable  changes  and  new  craters  have  been 
formed  on  three  or  four  occasions.  Of  the  several 
recorded  eruptions  of  Taal,  that  of  1754  is  the  most 
notable.  The  following  is  from  the  account  of  Father 
Buenuchillo,  the  parish  priest  of  Taal  at  the  time : 


24  THE  PHILIPPINES. 


THE  STOEY  OF  AN  ERUPTION. 

"It  began  on  May  13th  and  did  not  end  till  the  1st 
of  December.  During  this  time  the  intensity  and 
aspect  of  the  eruption  were  constantly  changing.  It 
was  two  hundred  days  of  devastation  and  ruin  for 
the  inhabitants,  to  whom  the  time  must  have  ap- 
peared an  eternity.  During  this  time  the  principal 
towns  of  the  Laguna  of  Bombon  disappeared,  viz., 
Sala,  Lipa,  Tanuan,  and  Taal,  with  the  numerous 
villages  around  them.  Other  towns  of  the  same  prov- 
ince at  a  distance,  as  well  as  towns  of  the  neighbor- 
ing provinces  of  Balayan,  Batangas,  and  Bauan,  also 
suffered  great  damage.  Rosario,  Santo  Tomas,  and 
San  Pablo  also  felt  the  effect  of  the  rain  of  ashes 
and  scoriae,  as  also  did  almost  all  the  provinces  below 
the  center  of  Luzon.  The  quantity  of  ashes  and  sco- 
riae which  was  sent  up  by  the  volcano  was  so  great 
that  a  large  quantity  of  pumice  stone  appeared  on 
the  surface  of  the  Laguna ;  and  several  villages 
around  Tanuan  and  others  around  Taal,  being  near 
the  volcano,  and  because  the  wind  was  east,  were 
totally  destroyed  by  this  rain." 

The  eruption  continued,  with  greater  or  less  in- 
tensity, but  continuously,  till  the  10th  of  July,  when 
the  nature  of  the  volcanic  rain  changed,  as  may  be 
gathered  from  the  following  words : 

"There  was  not  a  single  night  throughout  the  whole 
of  this  month  of  June  till  July  10th  in  which  flames 


THE  STORY  OF  AN  ERUPTION.  25 

were  wanting  on  the  volcano,  or  in  which  there  were 
not  rumbling  noises.  This  went  on  till  July  10th, 
when  it  rained  mud  over  the  town  of  Taal,  and  the 
mud  was  of  so  black  a  character  that  ink  would  not 
have  stained  so  blackly,  and  when  the  wind  changed 
the  mud  covered  a  village  called  Balele,  which  is 
near  Sala,  which  village  was  the  most  fertile  of  the 
whole  district.  The  volcano  continued  to  throw  out, 
with  more  or  less  intensity,  flames  and  black  smoke 
during  July  and  August  and  part  of  September,  till, 
on  the  25th  of  this  last  month,  it  appeared  as  if  the 
volcano  wished  to  parade  all  its  forces  against  us, 
because  on  that  date,  to  the  horrible  rumblings  and 
the  tremendous  flames,  was  joined  a  tempest  which 
originated  in  the  cloud  of  smoke.  The  lightnings 
which  accompanied  the  storm  continued  without  in- 
terruption till  December  4th.  It  is  truly  marvelous 
that  the  cloud  lasted  for  more  than  two  months.  Over 
and  above  this,  there  was  from  the  same  25th  of 
September  till  the  morning  of  the  26th  such  a  copious 
rain  of  pumice  stones  that  we  were  obliged  to  abandon 
our  homes  for  fear  the  stones  would  break  through 
the  roof,  as  indeed  happened  in  some  houses.  We 
were  thus  compelled  to  flee  through  this  hail  of  stones, 
and  some  were  wounded  by  the  stones  falling  on  their 
heads.  During  that  one  night  the  ground  was  cov- 
ered with  scorise  and  ashes  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  and 
a  half,  thus  destroying  and  drying  up  the  trees  and 
plants  as  if  a  fire  had  passed  over  them. 


26  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

"The  activity  of  the  volcano  continued  with  short 
intervals  of  quiet  during  the  months  of  October  and 
November.  On  the  evening  of  the  feast  of  All  Saints 
the  volcano  again  began  to  vomit  forth  fire,  stones, 
sand,  mud,  and  ashes  in  a  greater  quantity  than  ever. 
This  went  on  till  November  15th,  on  which  date,  after 
vespers,  there  commenced  a  succession  of  rumblings 
so  loud  as  to  deafen  one,  and  the  volcano  began  to 
vomit  forth  smoke  so  dense  and  black  as  to  darken 
the  atmosphere,  and  at  the  same  time  such  a  quan- 
tity of  large  stones  fell  into  the  lake  as  to  cause  big 
waves ;  the  earth  trembled,  the  houses  shook,  and  yet 
this  was  but  the  preparation  for  a  fresh  rain  of 
scoriae  and  ashes  which  lasted  the  whole  of  the  after- 
noon and  part  of  the  night. 

"Notwithstanding  the  disaster  that  had  overtaken 
us,  I  still  remained  in  the  said  town,  together  with 
the  chief  justice  of  the  province,  till  on  the  night  of 
the  27th  (November)  the  volcano  began  once  again  to 
vomit  such  a  quantity  of  flames  that  it  seemed  as  if  all 
that  had  been  erupted  during  the  preceding  months  to- 
gether did  not  equal  that  which  was  thrown  forth 
during  that  hour. 

"Every  moment  the  violence  of  the  volcano  in- 
creased so  that  the  whole  of  the  island  (that  is,  the 
island  in  the  lake)  was  covered  with  fire.  This  in- 
creasing volcanic  activity,  accompanied,  as  it  was, 
by  frightful  subterranean  rumblings  and  earthquakes, 


THE  STORY  OF  AN  ERUPTION.  27 

caused  the  unfortunate  inhabitants  to  abandon  their 
town  and  at  any  risk  to  gain  the  heights  which  rise 
between  it  and  Santuario  de  Caysasay. 

"Thus  passed  the  28th,  but  on  the  morning  of  the 
29th  smoke  was  observed  rising  in  various  points 
of  the  island  from  Calauit  to  the  crater  in  a  straight 
line,  just  as  if  a  fissure  had  been  opened  all  along 
the  line.  BetAveen  4  and  6  o'clock  of  the  same  even- 
ing the  horizon  darkened,  leaving  us  in  complete 
darkness,  and  at  the  same  time  it  began  to  rain  mud, 
ashes,  and  sand,  and  although  not  in  such  quantities 
as  before,  yet  it  kept  on  without  interruption  the 
whole  of  that  night  and  the  morning  of  the  30th. 

"The  rain  of  mud  ceased  somewhat  at  4:  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon.  It  then  measured  a  meter  in  depth 
in  Santuario  de  Caysasay,  which  is  distant  about 
four  leagues  from  the  volcano.  In  some  places  near 
the  island  the  depth  of  the  mud,  etc.,  reached  more 
than  three  yards.  The  rain  of  ashes  completely  ceased 
on  the  1st  of  December,  and  then  a  hurricane,  which 
lasted  two  days,  came  to  put  the  finishing  touches  to 
so  many  disasters  by  tearing  up  the  little  that  had 
been  left  standing." 

The  simple  and  pathetic  narrative  of  this  priest  is 
one  of  several  similar  stories  extant  of  the  eruptions 
of  this  and  other  volcanoes;  indeed  this  was  by  no 
means  the  only  experience  of  the  kind  that  Father 
Buenuchillo  survived. 


28  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

MAYON  VOLCANO. 

With  the  exception  of  Taal,  Mayon,  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  province  of  Albay,  is  the  most  notable 
volcano  for  its  activity  in  the  Archipelago.  It  rises 
to  a  height  of  7,916  feet  in  an  almost  perfect  cone 
with  a  slightly  truncated  apex,  from  which  it  con- 
stantly emits  smoke  and  steam.  Doctor  Becker  says : 
"It  is  possibly  the  most  symmetrically  beautiful  vol- 
canic cone  in  the  world,  and  at  times  its  crater  is  al- 
most infinitesimal,  so  that  the  meridional  curve  of 
the  cone  is  continuous  almost  to  the  axis."  Mayon 
has  been  in  eruption  on  countless  occasions  since  the 
discovery  of  the  islands.  Father  Coronas  records 
nearly  thirty  eruptions  between  the  years  1616  and 
1897.  Some  of  these  were  very  serious  in  their  con- 
sequences. In  1814  about  twelve  hundred  lives  were 
lost,  and  in  many  instances  the  towns  at  the  base  of 
the  volcano  have  suffered  severely.  This  has  not  de- 
terred the  natives  from  repopulating  the  same  spots. 
At  the  present  time  sites  on  the  southern  base  of 
Mayon  are  occupied  by  Legaspi,  Albay,  and  Daraga. 
At  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest  one  of  the  most 
numerous  communities  was  settled  in  the  vicinity  of 
Taal,  and  the  district  has  always  been  notably  popu- 
lous. 

Earthquakes  are  frequent,  and  have  often  been 
very  destructive,  notably  that  of  December,  1645, 
which  laid  Manila  in  ruins.  One  of  the  most  re- 


RIVERS  OF  LUZON.  29 

markable  seismic  disturbances  of  record  began  in 
Nueva  Vizcaya  on  the  3d  day  of  January,  1881. 
During  that  month,  May,  July,  August,  and  Septem- 
ber the  shocks  were  almost  incessant,  some  of  the 
waves  extending  over  the  entire  island  of  Luzon. 
Father  Maso,  the  Assistant  Director  of  the  Philippine 
Weather  Bureau,  remarks,  with  the  satisfaction  of 
the  scientist,  that  "Manila  is  most  advantageously 
situated  for  experiencing  almost  all  the  shocks  radiat- 
ing from  the  different  centers  of  Luzon."  In  a  long 
course  of  years  the  average  of  seismic  disturbances 
at  Manila  has  been  one  a  month.  In  the  great  ma- 
jority of  instances  they  have  been  hardly  noticeable 
shocks.  Since  the  sixteenth  century  the  capital  has 
been  visited  by  thirty-two  violent  earthquakes.  The 
last  destructive  shock  was  in  July,  1880,  when  the 
city  was  considerably  damaged. 

The  northern  islands  of  the  Archipelago  are  sub- 
ject to  violent  cyclones  which  do  immense  injury  to 
standing  crops  and  buildings.  The  destructive  ef- 
fects of  these  natural  visitations  are  decreasing  as 
the  people  learn  to  adopt  measures  for  minimizing 
them,  and,  as  in  our  western  States,  Nature  compen- 
sates for  occasional  turbulence  by  her  serenity  and 
bounteousness  at  other  times. 

RIVERS    OF   LUZON. 

Luzon  has  three  rivers  which  greatly  surpass  all 
others  of  the  island  in  drainage  basin,  length,  and 


30  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

navigability ;  these  are  the  Cagayan,  the  Agno,  and  the 
Pampanga. 

The  Cagayan,  popularly  called  El  Tajo  (the  in- 
cision), drains  one-fourth  of  the  entire  island.  Ris- 
ing in  Caraballos  Sur,  at  the  southern  boundary  of 
Isabela  Province,  it  follows  a  northward  course  to 
its  mouth  at  Aparri,  distant  upwards  of  two  hundred 
miles  from  its  source.  It  is  navigable  for  native 
boats  as  far  as  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  rafts  may  travel  to  within  twenty  miles  of 
its  headwaters.  Like  most  of  the  rivers  of  the  Phil- 
ippines, it  forms  a  bar  at  its  mouth  which  is  a  serious 
obstruction  to  traffic.  Vessels  which  are  excluded  by 
these  impediments  would  often  find  beyond  them 
ample  water  to  carry  them  far  up  stream.  The  Ca- 
gayan carries  the  entire  produce,  consisting  largely 
of  tobacco,  of  the  provinces  of  Isabela  and  Cagayan 
to  the  port  of  Aparri.  This  very  extensive  and  im- 
portant traffic  is  fed  by  the  contributions  of  the 
two  principal  tributaries  of  the  river,  which  are 
navigable,  one  for  twenty  miles  and  the  other  for 
forty  miles  from  the  points  of  juncture. 

The  Agno  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Benguet  Prov- 
ince. It  flows  through  the  northern  portion  of  the 
great  central  valley  of  Luzon  and  reaches  the  Gulf  of 
Lingayen  through  several  mouths  at  important  com- 
mercial points,  carrying  a  considerable  burden  of 
produce. 

The  Pampanga,   which  is  second  in  size  to  the 


RIVERS  OF  LUZON.  31 

Cagayan,  has  its  source  in  the  same  mountain  range 
as  the  latter,  and  pursuing  an  opposite  course,  along 
which  it  is  joined  by  many  branches,  discharges 
into  Manila  Bay  through  several  channels,  forming  an 
extensive  delta. 

The  Pasig  runs  from  Laguna  de  Bay  to  the  Bay  of 
Manila,  a  distance  of  about  eighteen  miles.  The  city 
of  Manila  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The 
Pasig  has  a  considerable  depth  and  width,  and  is  at 
all  times  navigable  by  the  cascos,  large  native  cargo 
boats  which  carry  on  enormous  traffic  between  the 
city  and  the  lake. 

Hitherto  the  rivers  of  the  Archipelago  have  been 
the  principal  inland  channels  of  trade,  owing  to  the 
almost  total  absence  of  railroad  and  the  impassa- 
bility  of  most  highways  during  the  rains.  Whilst 
these  waterways  will  always  afford  convenient  and 
economical  means  for  the  movement  of  native  pro- 
duce, with  the  development  of  the  islands  and  the 
completion  of  projected  transportation  facilities  much 
of  the  traffic  must  be  diverted  to  the  railway ;  indeed, 
the  path  of  the  locomotive  will  necessarily  conform 
to  the  general  direction  of  the  principal  rivers. 

There  is  hardly  a  province  of  Luzon  but  has  a 
wealth  of  resources  of  varied  descriptions ;  many,  per- 
haps most,  of  them  quite  undeveloped.  One  may 
hazard  the  prediction  that  under  a  liberal  policy  of 
government  and  with  the  aid  of  American  capital 
and  enterprise,  this  island  is  destined  to  become  one  of 


32  THE  PHILIPPINES 

the  most  productive   and  prosperous   regions  of  its 
size  in  the  world. 

At  present  we  will  take  only  a  cursory  view  of  the 
several  provinces,  with  special  regard  to  their  eco- 
nomic condition  and  possibilities,  leaving  more  par- 
ticular consideration  of  the  principal  resources  and 
industries  for  another  portion  of  the  volume. 

CAGAYAN    AND    ISABELA. 

These  provinces  are  the  main  field  of  tobacco  cul- 
tivation. The  entire  district  is  extremely  fertile. 
Hon.  William  H.  Taft,  writing  in  1901,  said:  "The 
enormous  capacity  for  development  of  this  valley, 
which  includes  the  provinces  of  Cagayan  and  Isa- 
bela,  can  hardly  be  exaggerated.  It  is  a  common 
thing  for  the  natives  to  use  their  land  seven  or  eight 
months  in  the  year  for  tobacco  and  then  to  derive 
two  successful  crops  of  corn  in  the  four  or  five  re- 
maining months  of  the  year.  There  are  some  very 
large  haciendas  owned  by  tobacco  companies,  but 
after  Spain  ceased  to  conduct  her  monopoly  of  the 
tobacco  business,  she  divided  up  much  of  the  tobacco 
land  among  the  tenants,  and  there  are  now  in  both 
provinces  a  great  number  of  small  holders  working 
their  own  land,  and  the  great  business  of  the  valley 
is  tobacco  buying." 

The  district  is  traversed  by  a  wagon  road,  with  an 
extensive  system  of  branches  connecting  the  most 
important  towns  in  the  provinces.  This  highway  is 


ILOCOS  NORTE.  33 

an  integral  portion  of  the  trunk  road  which  extends 
from  Aparri  to  Manila,  taking  a  route  which  will  be 
followed  by  one  of  the  proposed  new  railroads.  Al- 
most all  the  main  roads  of  the  island  are  paralleled 
by  telegraph  lines. 

ABRA,   LEPANTOBONTOC,   AND  NUEVA    VIZCAYA. 

These  provincial  divisions  comprise  a  region  which 
is  in  a  somewhat  backward  condition,  due  largely  to 
physical  conditions  unfavorable  to  the  successful  pur- 
suit of  agriculture.  Despite  the  extremely  rugged 
character  of  its  surface,  Abra  has  a  considerable 
area  of  rich  alluvial  soil  in  the  valleys  which  yields 
its  scant  population  bountiful  returns  for  their  tillage. 
The  province  is  enclosed  on  every  side  by  a  barrier 
of  impassable  mountains,  and  the  only  outlet  is  along 
the  bed  of  the  river.  The  other  two  provinces  in 
this  group  are  even  less  promising  from  an  agricul- 
tural outlook,  but  they  may  in  the  future  achieve  a 
considerable  degree  of  prosperity  by  reason  of  their 
mineral  resources.  Lepanto-Bontoc  is  extremely  rich 
in  copper  of  a  high  grade.  At  one  time  the  mines  of 
Mancayan  produced  about  five  hundred  tons  of  metal 
annually. 

ILOCOS  NOKTE,  ILOCOS  SUE  AND  LA  UNION. 

A  narrow  strip  along  the  northern  portion  of  the 
west  coast  encloses  the  above  named  provinces.  It  is 
a  fertile  region,  in  which  extensive  crops  are  raised, 


34  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

including  wheat  and  other  products  of  the  temperate 
zone.  The  inhabitants  are  amongst  the  most  pro- 
gressive and  industrious  in  the  Philippines.  Whilst 
the  men  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  fishing,  and  rais- 
ing live  stock,  which  is  one  of  the  chief  industries 
of  the  section,  the  women  are  occupied  in  spinning  and 
weaving  various  fabrics  that  find  an  export  market. 

There  is  a  highway  commencing  in  the  extreme 
north  and  following  the  coast  through  the  entire 
length  of  these  provinces.  It  forms  a  connection 
with  the  Manila-Dagupan  Railway  and  is  the  pro- 
posed route  of  the  extension  of  that  line  to  Laoag, 
the  capital  of  Ilocos  Norte. 

The  progress  of  this,  one  of  the  most  productive 
districts  of  Luzon,  was  prevented  by  internecine  war- 
fare until  the  Spaniards  brought  it  under  subjection 
in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the 
past  fifty  years  its  population  has  increased  several 
fold. 

BENGUET. 

Benguet  is  to  the  Americans  in  Manila  what 
"the  hills'7  are  to  the  English  in  India.  The 
entire  area  has  an  exceptional  altitude  which  gives 
it  a  climate  similar  to  that  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  Temperate  Zone.  The  maximum  temperature  is 
75°  2'  F.  and  the  minimum  46°  4'  F.,  giving  a  mean 
of  62°  6'  F.  The  scenery  is  beautiful  and  the  water 
excellent  and  abundant.  The  qualifications  of  the  dis- 


PANGASINAN.  35 

trict  for  a  health  resort  were  long  since  appreciated 
by  the  Commission,  and  it  was  determined  to  establish 
a  sanatarium  at  Baguio.  An  extension  of  the  railroad 
from  Dagupan  will  afford  ready  access  to  the  place. 

The  crops  of  the  Temperate  Zone  are  successfully 
cultivated  here,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  physical 
conditions  are  especially  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
tea  and  coffee. 

The  province  is  rich  in  minerals.  Copper  mines 
have  been  profitably  worked  by  natives  at  Baguio, 
Tavas,  and  Sudab.  Gold,  iron,  and  coal  are  also 
found  in  different  localites. 

Oak,  narra,  molave,  and  other  valuable  trees  are 
numerous,  besides  extensive  areas  of  pine. 

PANGASINAN. 

This  is  a  well-watered  province  capable  of  great 
development  in  several  directions.  The  chief  prod- 
ucts are  rice,  sugar  and  wine.  The  building  of  boats 
is  an  important  industry,  for  which  the  favorable 
coast  and  abundance  of  suitable  wood  afford  excep- 
tional facilities.  Superior  physical  conditions  exist 
for  the  cultivation  of  indigo,  chocolate,  and  coffee,  but 
little  attention  is  paid  to  these  profitable  products 
at  present.  The  Chinese  enjoy  a  practical  monopoly 
of  the  trade  of  this  province.  The  Chinese  element 
has  been  prominent  in  Pangasinan,  Pampanga  and 
Bulacan  for  two  hundred  years. 

Pangasinan  is  rich  in  minerals.     Its  name  is  de- 


36  THE  PHILIPPINES 

rived  from  the  extensive  salt  deposits.  The  Igorrotes 
of  the  mountains  extract  gold  and  copper  by  their 
crude  methods.  Rich  lodes  of  iron  and  magnetite  in 
a  pure  state  are  known  to  exist. 

The  only  railroad  at  present  operating  in  the 
islands  has  one  of  its  termini  at  Dagupan  on  the 
Gulf  of  Lingayen.  The  road  runs  through  the  prov- 
ince of  Pangasinan  and  continues  nearly  due  south 
to  its  terminal  at  Manila,  the  total  length  being  about 
125  miles. 

ZAMBALES. 

A  somewhat  backward  race  with  turbulent  tenden- 
cies inhabits  Zambales.  Although  the  industrial  con- 
dition of  the  province  is  not  promising,  it  offers  great 
opportunities  for  development  under  more  favorable 
circumstances.  The  soil  is  capable  of  yielding  the 
most  desirable  crops  of  the  Archipelago.  Copper  and 
coal  mines  are  in  operation  at  Agno  and  near  San 
Isidro.  There  are  indications  of  iron  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  north  and  in  those  of  the  south.  The 
forests  are  unusually  rich  in  valuable  woods  and 
gums.  Amber  is  found  in  large  quantities  along  the 
coast.  This  is  a  commodity  which,  owing  to  increas- 
ing scarcity,  is  constantly  enhancing  in  value. 

The  development  of  this  promising  province  was 
for  a  long  time  retarded  by  the  periodical  inroads 
of  the  Moro  pirates.  During  the  last  century  emi- 
gration has  combined  with  immunity  from  disturb- 


PAMPANGA.  37 

ance  to  produce  a  multiplication  of  more  than  six- 
teen in  the  population. 

BATAAN. 

The  province  is  a  peninsula  forming  the  eastern 
boundary  of  Manila  Bay.  It  is  almost  entirely  cov- 
ered by  mountains.  The  chief  product  is  rice.  Build- 
ing-wood and  ships'  timbers  are  exported  to  Manila. 
There  are  quarries  of  valuable  marbles  in  the  moun- 
tains and  probably  rich  mineral  deposits. 

TAKLAC. 

Tarlac  has  good  road  and  river  communication  be- 
tween its  own  towns  and  those  of  the  neighboring 
provinces.  Rice  and  sugar-cane  are  the  principal 
products.  There  are  no  mechanical  industries  with 
the  object  of  trade.  The  forests  should  be  a  source 
of  great  future  wealth  to  the  province.  They  contain 
large  stands  of  the  most  valuable  trees,  including 
narra,  ipil,  and  molave,  and  the  facilities  for  lum- 
bering are  exceptionally  good.  The  province  offers 
no  opportunities  for  mining,  and  in  this  respect  it 
resembles  its  neighbor,  Pampanga. 

PAMPANGA. 

Pampanga  province  is  in  a  highly  prosperous  con- 
dition owing  to  the  industry  of  its'  people,  the  fer- 
tility of  its  soil,  and  the  extent  of  its  transportation 
facilities.  It  has  good  road  and  river  communica- 


38  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

tion  and,  which  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  it  is 
intersected  by  the  railroad. 

The  delta  of  the  Pampanga  River  affords  a  rich 
area  for  the  cultivation  of  rice,  with  the  necessary 
facilities  for  irrigation.  Rice  is  the  main  crop,  and 
it  is  exported  in  great  quantities. 

The  forests  are  disappearing  as  tillage  extends, 
and  the  grazing  grounds,  which  formerly  afforded 
occupation  to  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  popu- 
lation, are  giving  out.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fish- 
eries and  mechanical  industries  show  a  marked  de- 
velopment in  recent  years.  There  are  several  hun- 
dred stone  mills  in  the  province  and  more  than  six 
hundred  sugar  factories,  about  one-third  of  them  be- 
ing worked  by  steam  and  hydraulic  power. 

NUEVA    ECIJA. 

Nueva  Ecija  is,  thanks  to  the  great  productiveness 
of  its  soil,  a  highly  prosperous  province.  Seventy- 
five  miles  of  the  Pampanga  run  within  its  boundaries, 
which  also  embrace  more  than  forty  distinct  tribu- 
taries of  that  river.  The  Pampanga  and  its  branches 
support  a  great  traffic  in  the  products  of  this  district. 
There  is  a  network  of  good  roads  in  the  province. 
The  soil  is  to  a  considerable  extent  alluvial  and  every- 
where fertile.  It  is  capable  of  producing  any  of  the 
staple  crops  of  the  island.  In  the  centre  of  the  prov- 
ince is  an  extensive  depression,  subject  to  inundation. 
This  makes  the  best  possible  paddy-land,  and  is  de- 


BULACAN.  39 

voted  chiefly  to  the  raising  of  rice,  which  constitutes 
the  principal  product  of  the  district  Of  this  grain 
over  30,000,000  of  quarts  are  exported  annually. 
Corn  is  raised  in  large  quantities,  and  the  cultivation 
of  tobacco  and  sugar  receives  considerable  attention. 
The  central  portion  of  the  province  contains  excellent 
pasture  where  the  greater  part  of  the  cattle  for  the 
Manila  market  is  fed. 


Bulacan  embraces  the  greater  part  of  the  delta  of 
the  Pampanga.  It  is  a  highly  productive  and  densely 
populated  district.  The  entire  province,  which,  with 
the  exception  of  a  small  portion  on  the  east,  is  flat 
and  well-watered,  produces  rich  crops  under  the  care- 
ful cultivation  of  the  Tagalog  inhabitants. 

Coal,  iron,  and  copper  exist  in  abundance  and 
amongst  other  minerals,  gold  and  silver  are  found. 
The  mountains  are  covered  with  trees  of  commercial 
value,  including  some  of  the  species  most  prized  by 
the  cabinet-maker. 

The  great  vegetable  and  mineral  wealth  of  Bula- 
can is  supplemented  by  ample  transportation  facili- 
ties. It  has  communication  with  Manila  by  road, 
rail,  and  steamer.  Most  of  the  rivers  are  navigable 
by  the  native  cargo  boats,  and  good  wagon  roads  con- 
nect it  with  the  adjacent  provinces. 

Bulacan  has  an  extensive  industry  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  fabrics.  Its  pina  cloth  has  a  world-wide 


40  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

reputation.  The  fibre  from  which  it  is  produced  is 
extracted  from  the  leaf  of  the  pineapple.  It  is  woven 
into  a  very  beautiful  silk-like  textile  which  commands 
a  high  price  in  the  Philippines  and  is  finding  favor 
in  Europe. 

Bulacan  and  Pampanga  have  been  prosperous  prov- 
inces since  early  times.  Father  Zuniga,  one  hundred 
years  ago,  found  their  rivers  laden  with  the  produce 
of  the  countryside  which  reached  Manila  by  way  of 
the  bay. 

KIZAL. 

A  consolidation  of  the  former  province  of  Manila, 
excluding  the  capital  city,  and  the  district  of  Morong, 
has  formed  the  new  province  of  Rizal.  The  princi- 
pal products  of  the  land  are  rice,  sugar-cane,  corn, 
and  tobacco.  The  chief  industries  are  the  manufac- 
ture of  lime,  rush  mats,  and  native  clothing,  and 
sugar-making,  and  quarrying.  The  province  has,  of 
course,  exceptional  facilities  for  the  distribution  of 
its  output. 

LAGUNA. 

The  province  extends  along  the  east  and  south 
shores  of  Laguna  de  Bay,  from  which  it  derives  its 
name.  It  has  an  extensive  river  system  which  thor- 
oughly irrigates  the  whole  of  its  area.  The  highways 
of  the  province  are  good  and  it  has  convenient  and 
economical  communication  with  Manila  from  vari- 
ous points  on  the  lake  via  the  Pasig  River. 


CAVITE.  41 

Laguna  is  a  populous  and  prosperous  province.  Its 
soil  and  climate  favor  the  growth  of  all  the  tropical 
plants  of  the  Archipelago.  An  exceptionally  large 
proportion — probably  as  much  as  one-fourth — of  its 
land  area  is  under  cultivation.  The  staple  products 
are  sugar-cane,  rice,  corn,  cotton,  cocoanuts,  tobacco, 
indigo,  and  various  vegetables.  Fruits  in  great  variety 
and  quantity  are  raised  and  their  shipment  to  Manila 
constitutes  an  important  element  of  the  trade  of  La- 
guna. The  raising  of  live-stock  is  also  an  industry  of 
consequence.  There  are  several  hundred  factories  en- 
gaged in  the  extraction  of  oil  and  the  distillation  of 
wine  from  the  cocoanut.  Amongst  other  industries, 
the  manufacture  of  bolos  and  of  furniture  deserve 
mention. 

Laguna  has  no  considerable  endowment  of  mineral 
or  forest  resources,  but  its  busy  population  will  al- 
ways find  ample  scope  for  their  industry  in  agricul- 
tural pursuits. 

CAVITE. 

Cavite  gains  a  great  deal  of  importance  from  the 
fact  that  its  capital,  the  town  of  the  same  name,  is 
the  naval  headquarters  of  the  Philippines.  The  inlet 
upon  which  it  stands  affords  the  best  anchorage  in 
the  Bay  of  Manila  and  is  the  refuge  of  ships  during 
severe  storms. 

The  province  has  a  frontage  of  thirty  miles  along 
the  bay.  The  inhabitants  of  the  littoral  are  engaged 


42  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

in  the  extensive  cultivation  of  rice,  in  fisheries,  and 
in  the  manufacture  of  salt.  The  output  of  all  these 
industries  is  exported  to  Manila.  Rice  and  sugar 
are  extensively  grown  in  the  interior,  where  pastoral 
pursuits  also  engage  a  large  number  of  the  people. 

BATANGAS. 

Batangas  has  three  or  four  excellent  harbors  and 
a  good  system  of  roads,  many  of  which,  however,  are, 
owing  to  the  preponderance  of  clay  in  the  soil,  im- 
passable for  wagons  in  the  rainy  season.  The  prov- 
ince contains  more  towns  of  a  considerable  population 
than  any  other  province  in  the  islands.  This  district 
is  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  well-developed  in 
Luzon.  The  output  of  coffee  and  sugar  is  very  large. 
Rice,  hemp,  chocolate,  and  other  products  of  agricul- 
ture help  to  swell  an  important  export  trade.  Live 
stock  is  also  raised  extensively,  the  Batangas  breed 
of  horses  being  widely  celebrated.  At  various  points 
in  the  province  are  mineral  springs  whose  waters 
have  remarkable  curative  properties  and  are  found 
to  be  efficacious  in  a  great  variety  of  diseases. 

Abundance  of  commercial  timber  stands  in  the 
mountainous  districts,  and  the  facilities  for  market- 
ing it  are  unusually  good.  This  is  but  one  of  several 
fields  which  Batangas  offers  for  the  profitable  invest- 
ment of  capital. 

The  population — almost  entirely  Tagalog — is  civ- 
ilized, progressive,  and  industrious.  Every  hut  con- 


TAYABAS.  43 

tains  one  or  two  looms,  from  which  the  women  turn 
off  a  variety  of  fabrics  of  the  finest  texture  and  the 
brightest  hues. 

TAYABAS. 

By  act  of  the  Philippine  Commission,  1902,  the 
long  and  narrow  strip  along  the  east  coast  compos- 
ing the  districts  of  Principe  and  Infanta,  and  in- 
cluding the  island  of  Polillo,  was  annexed  to,  and 
incorporated  with,  the  province  of  Tayabas.  The 
attached  region  is  in  great  part  mountainous  wilder- 
ness, extensive  portions,  particularly  in  Principe,  be- 
ing impenetrable.  Its  meagre  population — averag- 
ing about  one  to  the  square  mile — consisting  of  wild 
or  semi-civilized  tribes,  subsist  mainly  by  fishing  and 
hunting.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  five  or  six  small 
towns  agriculture  of  a  primitive  sort  occupies  a  few 
of  the  inhabitants.  The  people  of  this  region  have 
made  no  increase  in  numbers  and  hardly  any  progress 
toward  civilization  in  the  centuries  which  have 
elapsed  since  the  Spaniards  first  landed  upon  Luzon. 
The  earliest  accounts  of  this  Pacific  coast  and  its 
inhabitants  might  almost  serve  for  a  description  of 
to-day.  Coal  is  found  in  the  Island  of  Polillo,  but 
owing  to  the  difficulties  of  transportation  it  is  not 
mined.  The  forests  abound  in  a  variety  of  timber 
of  economic  value,  and  there  is  good  ground  for  the 
belief  that  the  mountains  are  rich  in  mineral  deposits, 
but  the  difficulty  of  marketing  any  products  will 


44  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

prove  a  hindrance  to  the  development  of  the  district 
for  many  years  to  come. 

Tayabas  proper  has  a  very  mountainous  surface. 
Its  coast-line  affords  good  anchorage  at  several  points, 
and  the  province  is  in  water  communication  with  all 
the  ports  of  the  Archipelago. 

Tayabas  is  traversed  by  the  great  highway  and 
telegraph  line  which,  commencing  at  Sorsogon  in 
the  southeast  of  Luzon,  passes  through  the  provincial 
capitals,  Albay,  ISTueva  Caceres,  Lucena,  Santa  Cruz, 
and  so  to  Manila. 

Notwithstanding  the  rugged  character  of  its  area, 
Tayabas  affords  its  inhabitants  ample  opportunity 
for  the  pursuit  of  agriculture.  The  mountain  ranges 
slope  to  the  coast  in  well-watered  terraces,  whose  fer- 
tile soil  yields  large  crops  of  rice,  sugar  cane,  and 
coffee.  Lumbang  is  a  specialty  of  the  district.  It 
is  a  seed  from  which  a  peculiarly  oleaginous  sub- 
stance is  obtained. 

The  forests  contain  a  great  variety  of  useful  hard- 
woods as  well  as  wax,  gums,  and  resinous  substances, 
in  which  there  is  an  important  export  trade  to  foreign 
countries. 

Indications  of  coal  have  been  marked  in  various 
parts  of  the  province.  The  island  of  Alabat,  off  the 
north  coast,  contains  veins  of  excellent  coal  in  the 
vicinity  of  Sanguinin  on  its  northwest  side.  The 
facilities  for  shipping  should  make  mining  at  this 
spot  an  attractive  proposition. 


AMBOS  CAMARINES.  45 

The  people  manufacture  a  great  variety  of  useful 
articles  for  export  and  several  kinds  of  native 
fabrics.  The  towns  along  the  shore  of  T  ay  abas  Bay 
have  boat-building  yards  from  which  cascos,  paraos, 
and  other  kinds  of  native  craft  are  turned  out. 

AMBOS    CAMARINES. 

Ambos  Camarines  has  several  fine  roads  connecting 
the  principal  towns  and  marts  of  commerce.  The  pro- 
jected new  railroad  system  of  the  Philippines  in- 
cludes a  line  to  run  from  Nueva  Caceres,  the  capital 
of  the  province,  to  the  town  of  Albay,  with  a  branch 
from  each  point  to  the  coast.  Within  a  radius  of 
ten  miles  from  the  capital  are  eleven  towns  of  im- 
portance, betAveen  which  communication  is  main- 
tained by  means  of  excellent  highways.  The  Bicol 
River,  by  reason  of  its  superior  navigability,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  inland  waterways  of  Luzon. 
Steamers  drawing  eleven  feet  may  go  up  to  Nueva 
Caceres,  twenty-five  miles  from  the  ocean.  Steam 
vessels  of  the  lightest  draft  may  go  as  far  as  the 
head  of  Lake  Bato,  seventy  miles  from  the  mouth, 
whilst,  at  certain  seasons,  native  boats  can  penetrate 
to  Polangui,  in  the  province  of  Albay. 

Ambos  Camarines  contains  extensive  areas  of  fer- 
tle  land,  from  which  are  produced  an  excellent  quality 
of  rice,  chocolate  superior  to  that  of  the  Moluccas, 
and  sugar  cane.  The  peninsula  south  of  and  includ- 
ing this  province  is  one  of  the  principal  hemp  dis- 


46  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

tricts  of  the  Archipelago.  Large  quantities  of  the 
fibre  are  exported  from  Ambos  Camarines,  whilst  a 
considerable  amount  is  consumed  by  the  local  looms, 
which  convert  it  into  sinamay  and  guimaras. 

A  variety  of  mechanical  industries  afford  employ- 
ment to  a  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants.  There 
are  numerous  sugar  mills,  hemp  presses,  refineries, 
and  distilleries,  besides  the  factories  of  metal  workers 
and  tool  makers. 

The  forests  are  particularly  rich  in  woods  of  great 
utility,  and  the  by-products,  such  as  resin,  pitch,  and 
wax,  are  numerous  and  abundant. 

Ambos  Camarines  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
important  auriferous  regions  in  the  Philippines. 
Gold,  silver,  iron,  lead,  and  copper  are  worked  on 
the  north  coast.  Mr.  Drasche,  a  well-known  German 
geologist,  has  reported  rich  quartz  veins  at  Mambulao, 
which,  at  the  time  of  his  inspection,  in  1875,  were 
being  worked  by  seven  hundred  natives.  At  Para- 
cale  there  are  parallel  quartz  veins  in  granite,  one 
twenty  feet  in  width,  the  ore  from  which  assays  thirty- 
eight  ounces  to  the  ton.  Quicksilver  is  found  at  Isa- 
rog  and  coal  near  Caramuan.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Daet,  on  the  northern  coast,  are  several  gold  mines. 
Near  Sogod  is  an  extensive  layer  of  coal  similar  to 
the  Australian  product.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
province  there  are  mines  of  pit  coal  and  quarries  of 
marble  and  gypsum. 


ALBAY.  47 

The  continuation  of  the  peninsula  to  the  south 
forms  the  province  of  Albay.  In  general  the  dis- 
trict is  rugged  and  volcanic.  Near  its  east  coast 
Mayon  rises  in  solitary  beauty  from  an  extensive 
plain.  Albay  has  numerous  waterways  and  good 
roads  forming  connections  between  all  the  important 
towns  and  villages.  Legaspi  and  Tabaco  are  ports  of 
entry  from  which  the  immense  hemp  output  of  the 
province  is  shipped  to  Manila.  An  idea  of  the  ex- 
tent of  this  trade  may  be  conveyed  by  the  statement 
that  at  Legaspi  alone  $1,000,000  changes  hands  every 
thirty  days.  The  surface  of  Albay  is  admirably 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  hemp,  or  abaca,  as  it  is 
called  in  the  islands.  The  plant  thrives  on  mountain- 
ous slopes  where  it  may  get  plenty  of  moisture  with 
good  drainage,  ample  shade,  and  a  fertile  soil.  Albay 
contributes  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  hemp  export 
of  the  Philippines,  the  value  of  which  in  the  last 
twelve  years  has  averaged  upwards  of  $18,000,000. 
In  addition,  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  product 
is  devoted  to  home  consumption  in  the  manufacture 
of  fabrics,  cordage,  etc. 

PROSPERITY    OF    ALBAY. 

The  production  of  oil  from  the  cocoanut  is  an  im- 
portant industry. 

As  an  index  to  the  prosperity  of  Albay  and  the 
two  contiguous  provinces  it  may  be  stated  that  their 
population  has  increased  more  than  seventeenfold  in 


48  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  past  two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The  hemp 
trade  has  been  a  predominating  factor  in  this  increase. 

Native  boats,  including  sails,  rigging,  etc.,  are 
made  in  the  coast  towns.  A  great  number  of  the  craft 
are  engaged  in  the  coastwise  trade,  carrying  hemp 
from  the  numerous  villages  along  the  shore  to  the  sea- 
ports, where  it  is  baled  and  shipped. 

Coal  mining  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  there  are  indications  of  gold,  silver,  and  iron  in 
commercial  quantities  amongst  the  summits  of  the 
eastern  coast-range. 

The  forests  contain  great  stands  of  valuable  trees, 
but  they  may  be  only  sparingly  felled,  since  extensive 
shade  is  essential  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  the 
hemp  plant. 

SORSOGON. 

Sorsogon,  the  southernmost  district  of  Luzon,  is 
particularly  favored  in  the  matter  of  good  harbors. 
That  in  which  the  port  of  Sorsogon  stands  is  one 
of  the  best  in  the  Archipelago.  The  shores  of  this 
gulf  are  well  cultivated  and  populous,  and  a  large 
traffic  is  carried  on  by  water  between  its  towns. 

The  population  of  the  province  is  largely  engaged 
in  the  hemp  industry,  and  in  the  production  of  copra, 
the  dried  meat  of  the  cocoanut,  from  which  the  oil  is 
expressed.  Both  of  these  commodities  are  shipped  in 
great  quantities. 

The  presence  of  abandoned  mines  of  gold,  silver, 


RAILROAD  EXTENSION.  49 

iron,  and  coal,  indicate  extensive  workings  in  former 
times,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  operations  might 
be  resumed  with  profit. 

RAILROAD    EXTENSION. 

The  commercial  development  of  the  Archipelago 
and  the  general  welfare  of  its  people  will  be  greatly 
advanced  by  the  extensive  railroad  system,  for  the 
construction  and  operation  of  which  contracts  were 
made  by  the  Philippine  Commission  in  1905.  The 
immediate  effect  will  be  to  double,  and  treble,  the 
commerce  of  certain  sections  where  almost  limitless 
products  need  only  transportation  facilities  to  find 
ready  markets. 

In  Luzon  it  is  proposed  to  extend  the  Manila-Dagu- 
pan  line  northward  along  the  coast  to  Laoag.  A 
branch  will  run  from  San  Fabian,  near  Dagupan, 
to  Baguio,  the  capital  of  Benguet  province,  and  the 
site  of  the  government  sanatarium.  Southward  from 
Manila  the  line  will  be  prolonged  to  the  town  of  Ba- 
tangas.  This  extension  will  skirt  the  west  shore  of 
Laguna  de  Bay,  and  a  branch  will  continue  round 
the  southern  end  of  the  lake  to  Santa  Cruz.  Another 
branch  will  connect  Lipa,  Batangas  province,  with 
Lucena,  on  T  ay  abas  Bay. 

The  portion  of  the  system  destined  to  traverse  the 
hemp  belt  of  the  southeastern  peninsula  has  already 
been  mentioned. 


50  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

MARINDUQTJE. 

Marinduque,  although  less  than  seven  hundred 
square  miles  in  extent,  is  an  island  of  considerable 
commercial  importance.  It  is  almost  circular  in 
shape  and  has  the  prevailing  mountainous  character- 
istics. The  greater  part  of  its  population  of  about 
50,000  Tagalogs  is  found  in  the  towns,  of  which  Boac, 
the  capital,  is  the  largest  and  most  important  in  every 
respect.  The  island  has  a  large  export  trade,  es- 
pecially in  rice,  copra,  and  hemp.  Marinduque  has 
excellent  facilities  for  stock  raising,  and  that  indus- 
try is  pursued  to  a  moderate  extent.  The  island  is 
distant  only  ten  miles  from  the  mainland  of  Luzon. 

THE  ISLAND  OF  MINDOKO. 

Mindoro  lies  immediately  south  of  the  province  of 
Batangas.  It  is  one  hundred  miles  long  by  sixty  at 
its  broadest  part,  and  has  an  area  of  about  3,500 
square  miles.  Its  mountain  range  runs  through  the 
middle  of  the  island  and  traverses  its  entire  length. 
In  Mt.  Halcon  the  range  attains  an  elevation  of  8,800 
feet.  The  island  is,  for  the  most  part,  covered  with 
forests  of  useful  trees.  The  valleys,  copiously  watered 
by  exceptionally  great  rainfall  and  numerous  streams, 
contain  extensive  stretches  of  the  best  kind  of  graz- 
ing land.  The  central  portion  of  the  island  is  a  large 
plain  of  this  description.  There  are  a  few  civilized 
settlements  on  the  coast,  but  the  inland  districts  are 


MASBATE.  51 

inhabited    by    the    wild    tribe    of    Manguianes,    or 
asavage  mountaineers." 

Mindoro  has  extensive  stretches  of  highly  fertile 
coast  land  that  are  unoccupied  save  for  a  little  ham- 
let here  and  there.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  dur- 
ing many  generations  the  island  was  ravaged  by  the 
Moro  pirates,  who  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  had  almost  depopulated  it. 

THE  VISAYAN  GROUP MASBATE. 

Masbate,  with  its  dependent  islands,  form  the  north- 
ernmost province  of  the  Visayas.  The  island  occupies 
a  position  in  the  latitudinal  center  of  the  Archipelago, 
and  about  eighty  miles  east  of  the  axis  of  longitude. 
The  surface  of  Masbate  is  very  broken  and  moun- 
tainous, but  in  the  west  and  southeast  portions  there 
are  extensive  and  well-watered  grazing  grounds. 
There  are  several  good  harbors  and  a  number  of 
streams  of  considerable  size. 

The  staple  products  are  cotton,  chocolate,  sugar- 
cane and  hemp.  The  island  has  long  been  famous 
for  its  herds  of  cattle  and  for  its  horses  and  hogs. 
The  grazing  industry  has  increased  largely  since 
the  American  occupation,  but  Masbate,  like  almost 
every  other  island  of  the  Archipelago,  suffered  se- 
verely from  the  recent  visitation  of  rinderpest.  Nor- 
mally the  island  will  ship  in  the  course  of  a  year  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  thousand  head  of  cattle  to  Manila,  be- 
sides supplying  other  parts  of  Luzon  and  Negros  with 


52  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

numerous  cardbao.  %  An  important  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  sacks  and  palm  mats  for  export. 
Numbers  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  collecting 
the  by-products  of  the  forests,  in  fishing,  hunting,  and 
weaving.  A  fine  quality  of  lignite  is  found  upon 
the  island,  and  gold  is  washed  from  the  sands  of  the 
rivers. 

SAMAE. 

Samar,  the  chief  of  the  Visayan  Group,  is  the  third 
in  size  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  having  an 
area  of  5,000  square  miles.  It  lies  about  ten  miles 
off  Sorsogon,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait 
of  San  Bernardino.  The  island  has  a  very  irregular 
surface,  but  there  are  no  great  elevations.  The  coast 
line  is  extremely  broken  and  is  fringed  with  islets  and 
reefs,  making  approach  difficult,  especially  upon  the 
eastern  side.  Samar  has  several  rivers  of  considerable 
length,  but  they  are  all  very  shallow  and  beset  with 
rocky  obstructions,  so  that  navigation  is  limited  to 
native  boats.  In  connection  with  the  present  railway 
improvements,  a  line  will  be  constructed  to  cross  the 
island  from  Paranas,  about  midway  of  the  west 
coast,  to  San  Julian,  almost  directly  opposite,  upon 
the  east  coast.  Physical  and  climatic  conditions  in 
Samar  are  favorable  to  the  production  of  all  the 
staple  crops  of  the  Archipelago.  The  output  of  hemp, 
sugar,  rice,  and  copra  is  very  large.  The  island  is 
said  to  be  rich  in  coal  and  other  minerals,  but  the 


BOHOL.  53 

hostility  of  the  natives  in  the  interior  has  hitherto 
been  a  bar  to  satisfactory  exploration. 

LEYTE. 

Leyte  belongs  to  the  Visayas  and  is  situated  to  the 
southwest  of  Samar,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
less  than  half  a  mile  of  water.  Its  length  is  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  miles  and  its  utmost  breadth  fifty 
miles.  The  greater  part  of  the  island  is  broken  up 
by  groups  of  mountains  and  volcanic  cones.  One 
continuous  range  of  hills  traverses  its  entire  length. 
Leyte  has  several  fine  bays  and  harbors,  and  three  or 
four  rivers  of  commercial  consequence,  including  the 
Binahaan,  which  permits  of  cascos  going  up  to  Da- 
gami,  an  important  town,  fifteen  miles  from  the  coast. 

The  railroad  is  planned  to  extend  from  Tacloban, 
on  the  northeast  coast,  to  Casigara,  upon  the  bay  of 
that  name ;  in  a  southerly  direction  the  line  will  run 
from  Tacloban  to  the  town  of  Abuyog. 

The  population  of  about  300,000  consists  of  Visay- 
ans  almost  exclusively,  and  their  language  is  the  cur- 
rent dialect.  Leyte  is  one  of  the  most  highly  culti- 
vated of  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  chief  product 
is  hemp,  of  which  the  quality  is  excellent.  Sugar 
and  live  stock  are  important  exports  from  the  island. 

BOHOL. 

Bohol,  of  the  Visayas,  lies  between  Leyte  and  Cebu. 
It  has  a  length  from  east  to  west  of  about  sixty  miles 


54  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

and  a  breadth  of  about  forty  miles.  Nowhere  are 
there  any  great  elevations.  The  southern  half  of  the 
island  is  hilly,  but  in  the  north  the  land  is  level,  or 
undulating,  seldom  reaching  a  height  of  one  thousand 
feet.  The  outline  of  Bohol  is  unusually  simple, 
but  the  northern  and  eastern  coasts  are  rendered  diffi- 
cult of  approach  by  reefs.  The  island  is  without  a 
harbor  of  consequence.  There  are  four  or  five  rivers 
in  Bohol  that  are  navigable  by  large  native  cargo 
boats.  The  population  is  notable  for  its  industry. 
The  soil  is  not  particularly  favorable  to  agriculture, 
but  a  large  quantity  of  vegetable  produce  is  raised 
by  careful  tillage.  The  chief  mechanical  industries 
are  the  weaving  of  textiles  from  cotton  and  pineapple 
fibre. 

CEBIT. 

Cebu  occupies  a  central  position  amongst  the  south- 
ern members  of  the  Visayan  Islands.  It  is  a  narrow 
strip  of  land,  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  in  length, 
lying  between  Bohol  and  Negros.  The  Cordillera 
Central  range  of  mountains  runs  the  entire  length 
of  the  island  and  bisects  it  in  almost  equal  parts. 
Whilst  this  range  nowhere  attains  an  altitude  much 
in  excess  of  two  thousand  feet,  it  is  difficult  of  passage 
and  forms  a  serious  obstacle  to  communication  be- 
tween the  coasts.  Its  entire  length  only  affords  about 
half  a  dozen  easy  cross  routes. 

Cebu  has  no  navigable  rivers.     Its  appropriation 


NEGROS.  55 

in  the  new  railroad  system  contemplates  a  line  run- 
ning north  from  the  city  of  Cebu  to  Danao  on  the 
east  coast,  and  south  from  Cebu  to  Argao  on  the 
same  coast.  In  addition  there  may  be  constructed  a 
line  across  the  island  from  Carcar,  or  Sibonga,  to 
the  west  coast,  and  thence  along  the  coast  between 
Dumanjug  and  Barili. 

The  province,  which  embraces  a  few  small  adjacent 
islands,  is  the  most  populous  in  the  Archipelago, 
having  600,000  inhabitants :  that  is,  337  to  the  square 
mile,  a  density  unapproached  by  any  other  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  which  have  an  average  of  sixty- 
seven  to  the  square  mile.  The  city  and  port  of 
Cebu  has  an  excellent  harbor.  It  is,  next  to  Manila 
and  Iloilo,  the  largest  municipality  in  the  islands. 
Cebu  exports  hemp,  sugar,  and  copra  in  large  quanti- 
ties and  raises  a  great  deal  of  rice,  mainly  for  local 
consumption.  The  principal  manufactures  are  sugar, 
salt,  pottery,  sacks,  and  various  fibre  fabrics. 

NEGEOS. 

Negros,  one  of  the  Visayas,  is  situated  between 
Cebu  and  Panay.  It  is  nearly  as  large  as  Samar 
and  in  form  somewhat  resembles  Leyte.  A  con- 
tinuous mountain  range,  embracing  several  peaks 
exceeding  six  thousand  feet  in  height,  traverses  the 
island  from  end  to  end.  Negros  is  almost  entirely 
encircled  by  a  broad  belt  of  coast  land,  which  is  par- 
ticularly well  adapted  to  sugar  raising.  This  is  the 


56  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

principal  seat  of  that  industry  in  the  Philippines.  It 
has  been  carried  on  here  for  forty  years.  Steam  and 
hydraulic  machinery  is  used  in  the  process  of  extrac- 
tion. The  fisheries  are  an  important  element  in  the 
industries  of  the  island. 

Negros  is  deficient  of  good  harbors,  and  most  of  its 
rivers  are  navigable  only  by  lorchas,  but  the  Pasig 
and  Danao  admit  vessels  drawing  ten  feet  of  water 
to  a  distance  of  ten  miles  from  their  mouths.  The 
railroad  will  run  from  the  harbor  of  Escalante,  on 
the  northeast  coast,  westerly,  following  the  coast  line 
to  Himamailan. 

PANAY. 

Panay,  the  westernmost  island  of  the  Visayan 
group,  has  the  shape  of  a  rough  isosceles  triangle 
with  its  apex  pointing  in  a  southwesterly  direction. 
Its  equilateral  lengths  are  one  hundred  miles  and  its 
base  seventy-five  miles.  In  area  it  is  not  far  short 
of  Negros  and  Samar.  A  range  of  mountains  runs 
along  the  entire  west  coast  and,  from  a  point  about 
midway,  throws  out  a  spur  which  traverses  the  island, 
terminating  in  the  northeast  corner.  The  eastern 
half  of  Panay  contains  large  reaches  of  level  and  fer- 
tile land,  intersected  by  numerous  streams.  None  of 
the  rivers  of  the  island  will  accommodate  any  but 
the  lightest  craft.  There  are,  however,  many  fine 
roads  running  coastwise  between  important  trade  cen- 
ters, but,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  crossing  the  moun- 


PANAY.  57 

tains  in  the  interior,  communication  between  the 
provinces  is  carried  on  solely  by  sea.  Panay  is  one 
of  the  most  populous  of  all  the  islands,  its  inhabitants 
numbering  in  the  neighborhood  of  800,000.  It  has 
several  large  towns  and  three  important  cities, 
namely,  Antique,  Capiz  and  Iloilo.  The  last  ranks 
next  to  Manila  amongst  the  commercial  centers  of  the 
Philippines.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  vessels  draw- 
ing fifteen  feet  of  water  may  safely  approach  the  city 
at  all  seasons.  The  staple  products  are  sugar-cane, 
rice,  and  copra.  In  1892  the  shipments  of  sugar 
from  this  island -aggregated  the  enormous  amount  of 
354,934,482  pounds.  In  recent  years  the  production 
has  fallen  off  more  than  fifty  per  cent.,  owing  mainly 
to  a  decreased  foreign  demand. 

A  large  portion  of  Panay  is  exceptionally  fine 
grass-land,  on  which  live  stock,  chiefly  carabao,  is 
raised  in  large  numbers.  The  horses  of  Iloilo 
are  famed  throughout  the  islands  and  are  in  constant 
demand. 

The  mechanical  industries  are  important.  The  ex- 
ports include  the  best  quality  of  pina  cloth,  silk,  cot- 
ton, hemp  and  other  fabrics.  The  province  of  An- 
tique in  particular  is  celebrated  for  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  its  textile  manufactures,  which  give  em- 
ployment at  the  looms  to  upwards  of  twelve  thousand 
women.  Panay  was  noted  for  its  beautiful  homespun 
fabrics  one  hundred  years  and  more  ago. 

The  projected  railway  will  consist  of  a  line  running 


58  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

in  a  northeasterly  direction  from  Iloilo  and  forking  to 
the  towns  of  Capiz  and  Bataan. 

The  island  has  exceptionally  great  mineral  re- 
sources, but  they  have  not  been  scientifically  worked. 
Deposits  of  quicksilver,  gold,  iron,  and  copper,  are 
known  to  exist.  There  are  indications  of  coal  in  sev- 
eral localities.  Fine  marbles,  and  a  beautiful  variety 
of  tonalite,  are  quarried.  Veins  of  gypsum  and  marl 
have  been  located,  and  petroleum  and  natural  gas  are 
reported. 

PABAGUA. 

Paragua,  or  Palawan,  stretches  275  miles  north- 
west and  southwest  with  a  maximum  width  of  twenty- 
five  miles.  It  is  inhabited  almost  entirely  by  wild 
tribes.  It  has  no  trade  of  consequence  and  hardly  a 
town  worthy  of  the  name.  The  industries  consist 
mainly  of  stock-raising  and  weaving  of  cloth  for  local 
use.  The  island  contains  a  fair  proportion  of  fertile 
land  and  some  good  grazing  grounds.  The  forests 
abound  in  very  valuable  woods,  and  the  physical  con- 
ditions would  be  favorable  to  lumber  operations  by 
improved  methods. 

MINDANAO. 

Mindanao  approximates  to  Luzon  in  size,  but  with 
a  greatly  differing  shape.  The  surface  formation  of 
the  island  is  very  irregular  and  diversified.  A  range 
of  mountains  skirts  the  whole  of  the  east  coast.  Min- 


MINDANAO.  59 

danao,  like  Luzon,  contains  two  large  valleys.  That 
of  the  Agusan  lies  to  the  west  of  the  eastern  mountain 
range,  from  which  the  great  Agusan  river  receives 
its  supplies  as  it  flows  northward  over  a  course  of  240 
miles  to  its  mouth  in  Butuan  Bay.  Vessels  with  a 
six-foot  draft  may  navigate  the  Agusan  to  a  distance 
of  twenty  miles  from  its  outlet,  and  light  native 
craft  go  much  farther/  The  river  has  several  strong 
tributaries,  some  of  which  are  of  great  utility  to 
the  natives  as  channels  of  traffic.  The  Agusan  in 
its  upper  course  drains  Lake  Lanao,  the  surface  of 
which  is  2,200  feet  above  sea  level.  On  the  south 
its  shore  rises  abruptly  to  a  plateau  nearly  one  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  lake.  Several  detached  extinct 
volcanoes  rise  to  heights  varying  from  one  to  two  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  plateau.  The  lake  is  almost  sur- 
rounded by  mountains.  The  valley  of  the  Agusan  has 
a  breadth  of  from  forty  to  fifty  miles,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  west  by  a  succession  of  ranges  traversing  the 
entire  length  of  the  island  through  its  center  and 
dividing  its  two  great  plains.  These  ranges  are  fre- 
quently broken,  presenting  many  low  and  easy  passes. 
The  Rio  Grande  de  Mindanao  is  the  first  river  in 
length  of  the  Archipelago.  It  rises  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  island,  and  after  passing  through  the 
valley,  to  which  it  gives  its  name,  discharges  into  the 
Bay  of  Illana,  distant  three  hundred  miles  from  its 
headwaters.  It  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  as 
far  as  Lake  Liguasan,  a  distance  of  about  thirty 


60  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

miles,  and  for  boats  drawing  three  and  a  half  feet 
of  water  for  fifteen  miles  higher.  By  blasting  the 
rocks  with  which  its  bed  is  beset,  a  much  more  exten- 
sive channel  would  be  freed  to  commerce.  With  the 
development  of  the  island  such  an  undertaking  may 
prove  of  economic  advantage,  for  the  course  of 
the  stream  is  through  a  region  rich  in  forest  products, 
including  rubber  and  gutta  percha. 

The  coast  of  Mindanao  is  not  intricately  indented 
like  those  of  most  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  Al- 
though it  has  several  large  bays,  penetrating  far 
inland,  there  are  few  good  harbors. 

A  range  of  mountains  hugs  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Zamboanga  peninsula,  and  is  continued  in  de- 
tached spurs  along  the  coast  to  the  Gulf  of  Davao. 
About  thirty  miles  to  the  west  of  the  port  of  Davao 
stands  Apo  volcano,  the  highest  peak  in  the  Archi- 
pelago. Its  summit  rises  10,311  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  "Looking  at  the  volcano  from  Davao, 
or  Samal,  on  a  cloudless  morning,  there  may  be  seen 
distinctly  a  wide  space  with  small  cones  of  sulphur, 
from  which  burst  forth  intermittent  eruptions  of 
white  sulphurous  vapors.  This  is  a  magnificent  spec- 
tacle when,  at  sunrise,  the  sulphur  mantle  and  cones 
are  shining,  and  there  then  appears  a  sudden  jet  of 
vapors  sometimes  growing  and  growing  until  the 
white,  fine  cloud  covers  the  whole  spot,  and  even  the 
summit  of  the  volcano.  Though  Apo  is  well  known 
to  be  active,  there  is  no  record  of  its  eruptions. 


MINDANAO.  61 

The  Apo  volcano-seismic  center  is  one  of  the  most 
active  of  the  Archipelago;  small  seismic  shocks  are 
felt  weekly  if  not  daily ;  very  often  a  rumbling  sound 
precedes  the  stronger  shocks." 

With  the  exception  of  Mindoro  and  Paragua,  Min- 
danao is  the  most  sparsely  settled  of  all  the  principal 
islands.  It  has  a  population  of  about  half  a  million, 
which  gives  only  about  fourteen  to  the  square  mile. 
The  towns  are  mainly  situated  upon  the  coast,  and 
the  banks  of  the  larger  rivers  and  great  inland  lakes. 
A  considerable  portion  of  Mindanao  is  terra  incognita, 
and  it  is  believed  that  extensive  areas  are  practically 
uninhabited. 

Development  might  transform  Mindanao  into  one 
of  the  wealthiest  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  it  contains  rich  deposits  of 
gold  and  other  valuable  minerals.  Its  forests  abound 
in  the  most  desirable  hardwoods,  and  its  vegetable 
products  only  need  exploitation  to  exceed  those  of 
any  other  island  in  the  Philippines.  Mindanao  has 
the  peculiar  advantage  of  producing  spices  of  several 
varieties  and  in  great  quantities.  Live  stock  is  raised 
extensively,  but  the  production  of  chief  commercial 
value  is  hemp,  in  the  output  of  which  the  island  ranks 
fifth  amongst  the  various  hemp  sections  of  the  Archi- 
pelago. Except  in  a  limited  way,  for  local  purposes, 
the  mechanical  industries  are  not  prosecuted  in  Min- 
danao. 


62  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

SULU. 

Sulu,  or  Jolo,  is  the  chief  island  of  the  group  of 
that  name.  It  lies  to  the  southwest  of  Mindanao. 
Sulu  has  a  commercial  and  political  importance  quite 
incommensurate  with  its  insignificant  area.  The 
scenery  of  the  island  is  extremely  beautiful,  and  it 
has  a  splendid  climate.  The  soil  is  highly  fertile 
and  the  greater  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  agriculture.  There  is  a  large  extent  of  vir- 
gin forest  composed  mainly  of  trees  of  commercial 
value.  There  is  some  trade  in  the  shipment  of  choice 
cabinet  woods,  but  the  chief  exports  are  oyster  pearls 
and  mother-of-pearl  shell. 

TAWI  TAWI. 

This  group  of  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
islands  has  an  aggregate  area  of  only  358  square 
miles.  The  principal  island,  Tawi  Tawi,  is  232 
square  miles  in  extent.  The  group  forms  part  of  the 
Sulu  Archipelago.  After  the  treaty  of  cession  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  had  been  made  it  was  discovered 
that  these  islands  lay  six  miles  beyond  the  boundary 
limits.  They  were  acquired  by  special  convention 
and  the  payment  of  an  extra  gratuity  to  Spain. 

The  inhabitants  number  less  than  twelve  hundred. 
They  are  Moros,  with  no  industries  other  than  those 
of  the  simplest  domestic  character.  During  many 
centuries  these  islands  have  been  a  favorite  resort  of 
Malayan  pirates. 


FAUNA.  63 

The  fauna  of  the  Philippines,  whilst  in  general  re- 
sembling that  of  the  neighboring  Malayan  islands, 
shows  some  marked  differences  from  them.  Borneo 
and  Java  have  many  more  species  than  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Philippines,  which  have  but  three  repre- 
sentatives of  the  carnivora,  but  six  species  of  deer, 
and  only  two  of  the  monkey  tribe.  Rodents  are 
scarce,  but  there  are  at  least  thirty  varieties  of  bats. 

ANIMAL,    LIFE. 

The  carabao,  few  of  which  remain  in  a  wild  state, 
and  the  timarau,  or  antelope  buffalo,  are  the  only 
large  mammals.  The  distribution  of  the  fauna  of 
the  Archipelago  is  very  remarkable.  There  are 
numerous  species  of  animals  which  are  found  only 
in  restricted  localities.  The  timarau  is  peculiar  to 
Mindoro.  Porcupines  are  known  only  in  Paragua 
and  the  Calamianes  Islands.  These  two  divisions 
also  possess  a  number  of  birds  which  are  not  to  be 
found  elsewhere  in  the  Philippines,  although  they  are 
similar  to  Borneon  species.  The  island  of  Balabac 
is  the  habitat  of  a  curious  animal  little  larger  than  a 
cat,  but  which  in  form  is  exactly  like  a  doe.*  Luzon 
contains  286  species  of  birds,  51  of  which  are  not 
known  in  any  other  island.  In  Cebu,  despite  its 
proximity  to  Bohol  on  one  side  and  to  Negros  on  the 

*  The  Tragulm  Ranchil.  It  is  also  found  in  Malacca  and 
in  Cochin  China.  Vide,  Lucon  et  Palaouah,  par  Alfred 
Marche,  Paris,  1887. 


64  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

other,  there  are  nine  species  of  birds  not  found  else- 
where. Upwards  of  three  hundred  species  of  land 
birds  exist  in  the  Philippines.  These  include  such 
game  birds  as  duck,  geese,  snipe,  plover,  and  quail. 

Crocodiles,  snakes,  and  lizards  are  numerous  and 
widely  distributed.  There  is  a  small,  chirping  lizard 
which  makes  its  home  in  the  walls  of  houses  and  is 
regarded  with  a  sort  of  superstitious  favor  by  the 
natives.  Pythons  are  to  be  found  in  many  localities 
and  are  said  to  attain  a  length  of  forty  feet. 

Whilst  there  are  a  great  variety  of  insects,  some  of 
them  exceedingly  beautiful,  insect  life  is  not  abundant 
numerically.  There  are  comparatively  few  house 
flies,  and,  except  about  the  marshy  coast  lands,  mos- 
quitoes are  nothing  like  the  pest  they  become  in  most 
East  Indian  countries. 

The  waters  of  the  Archipelago  harbor  abundance 
of  fish  of  various  species,  which  form  an  important 
factor  in  the  domestic  economy  of  the  natives. 

FLORA. 

In  general  the  flora  resemble  those  of  Borneo,  Su- 
matra, and  Java.  The  principal  features  of  the  flora 
in  their  commercial  aspects  will  be  described  else- 
where in  connection  with  commerce  and  agriculture. 
The  forests  of  the  Archipelago  are  of  enormous  ex- 
tent and  their  product  of  incalculable  value.  Under 
conservative  regulations,  if  these  are  not  made  so 
stringent  as  to  discourage  the  investment  of  capital 


VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS.  65 

in  lumber  operations,  the  products  of  the  forests 
should  prove  to  be  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country.  The  Philippine  Forestry 
Bureau  reports  750  different  kinds  of  wood  brought 
to  market  during  the  year  1902,  but  this  is  probably 
far  from  representing  the  number  of  species  avail- 
able for  industrial  purposes  and  domestic  use  under 
favorable  conditions  of  operation.  Under  the  Span- 
iards no  scientific  exploration  of  the  forests  was  at- 
tempted. For  some  time  past  the  Insular  Forestry 
Bureau,  under  Captain  G.  P.  Ahern,  has  been  en- 
gaged in  a  systematic  survey  of  the  forest  lands  and 
a  careful  examination  of  species  by  experts.  Climatic 
and  other  considerations  are  such  that  but  for  the 
interference  of  man  these  islands  would  be  practically 
covered  with  trees,  even  up  to  the  higher  slopes  of  the 
mountains.  As  it  is,  two-thirds  of  the  area  of  the 
Archipelago  is  occupied  by  almost  virgin  forest,  the 
cleared  regions  being  in  the  main  centers  of  popula- 
tion, such  as  the  coast  districts  and  the  great  valleys 
of  Luzon  and  Mindanao. 

VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS   OF  COMMERCIAL  VALUE. 

The  principal  vegetable  products,  in  the  order  of 
their  commercial  importance,  are  abaca  (hemp),  to- 
bacco, sugar,  copra,  coffee,  and  rice. 

The  chief  hemp  districts  are  the  southeastern  prov- 
inces of  Luzon,  the  islands  of  Catanduanes,  Samar,  and 
Leyte.  Abaca  is  practically  a  monopoly  of  the  Philip- 


66  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

pines,  for  despite  several  efforts  in  different  regions, 
this  plant  has  not  been  successfully  grown  elsewhere. 

The  main  tobacco  district  is  the  valley  of  the 
Cagayan,  in  which  an  excellent  variety  of  leaf  is 
raised.  It  is  believed  by  connoisseurs,  familiar  with 
the  Cuban  product,  that  with  improved  methods  of 
cultivation,  curing,  etc.,  the  Philippine  leaf  would 
compare  favorably  with  any  in  the  world,  excepting, 
perhaps,  the  output  of  the  Vuelta  Aba  jo  district  of 
Cuba.  Upwards  of  20,000,000  pounds  of  leaf  are 
shipped  annually,  most  of  it  to  Spain,  and  over  100,- 
000,000  cigars.  These  go  chiefly  to  China,  Japan, 
and  the  East  Indies. 

Sugar  is  produced  in  many  provinces,  but  particu- 
larly in  Pampanga,  of  Luzon,  and  the  island  of  Ne- 
gros.  The  cane  is  raised  in  a  very  haphazard  fash- 
ion, and  the  greater  part  of  the  product  is  extracted 
by  the  crudest  methods.  Nevertheless,  the  export 
averages  about  200,000,000  pounds  a  year.  The  pos- 
sibilities for  an  extension  of  this  trade  under  more 
favorable  conditions  are  very  great. 

Copra,  the  dried  kernel  of  the  cocoanut,  is  shipped 
in  large  quantities  to  France  and  other  countries, 
where  oil  is  expressed  from  it.  Probably  there  is  no 
vegetable  product  in  the  island  the  cultivation  of 
which  might  be  developed  with  greater  profit.  It  is 
one  of  the  few  products  which  enjoy  a  commercial 
demand  constantly  equal  to  the  entire  supply.  At 
present  the  industry  is  carried  on  in  the  most  waste- 


VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS.  67 

ful  and  unintelligent  manner  and  profits  are  allowed 
to  accrue  to  the  foreign  manufacturer  which  should 
be  retained. by  the  cultivator. 

Coffee  is  grown  in  the  provinces  of  Batangas,  La- 
guna,  Tayabas,  and  Oavite,  of  Luzon,  and  in  parts  of 
Mindanao.  The  Philippine  article  compares  favor- 
ably with  the  products  of  Mocha  and  Java.  At  one 
time  the  annual  crop  amounted  to  about  14,000,000 
pounds,  but  in  recent  years  it  has  greatly  diminished, 
owing  to  the  destruction  of  the  plants  by  a  parasitic 
insect. 

Palay,  or  rice,  of  a  good  quality  may  be  raised  in 
most  of  the  provinces  of  the  islands.  It  is  the  chief 
food  of  the  natives,  who  annually  consume  a  quan- 
tity greatly  in  excess  of  what  is  produced  in  the 
islands.  The  fact  has  not  necessarily  an  unfavorable 
economic  significance.  In  many  districts,  as  for 
instance  in  the  hemp  provinces,  the  inhabitants  can 
devote  their  land  and  energies  to  the  production  of  a 
more  valuable  crop.  Still,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
the  Philippines  should  import  less  and  raise  more  of 
this  staple.  There  was  a  time  when  rice  was  a  great 
article  of  export  from  Manila. 

The  other  vegetable  products  of  note  are  chocolate, 
corn,  wheat,  indigo,  sesame,  peanuts,  and  many  varie- 
ties of  garden  vegetables. 

In  Mindanao  and  Paragua  cinnamon,  nutmegs, 
cloves,  mace  and  other  spices  grow,  and  there  is  a 
large  field  for  the  extension  of  their  cultivation. 


68  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  tea  plant  thrives  in  certain  localities,  and  it 
is  believed  that  the  camphor  tree  might  be  introduced 
with  success. 

MINERALS. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  mineral  wealth 
of  the  Philippines.  It  is  probable  that  each  island, 
and  indeed  almost  every  province,  has  rich  deposits 
of  one  kind  or  another.  Mining  operations  have  never 
been  sufficiently  extensive  to  afford  a  satisfactory  cri- 
terion of  the  profitability  of  that  industry.  There  is 
sound  ground,  however,  for  the  belief  that  with  the 
increased  working  and  transportation  facilities  that 
will  soon  be  available  the  development  of  the  mineral 
resources  of  the  islands  will  yield  large  returns  to 
investors. 

Coal  in  varying  quality,  from  excellent  to  worthless, 
underlies  a  great  part  of  the  islands,  deposits  having 
been  discovered  in  many  provinces.  Gold  is  distrib- 
uted over  a  large  area  and  in  some  sections  it  has  been 
worked  from  prehistoric  times.  It  was  doubtless  ex- 
changed with  the  earliest  traders,  for  the  Chinese  had 
a  tradition  that  a  mountain  of  the  precious  metal  ex- 
isted in  Luzon.  Rich  veins  of  copper  have  been  dis- 
covered and  worked  to  a  very  limited  extent  and  in  a 
primitive  fashion.  Iron  is  abundant  on  several  of  the 
islands,  and  natives  have  worked  it  in  a  crude  man- 
ner into  ploughshares  and  other  implements.  Lead, 
silver  and  other  valuable  metals  are  known  to  exist  in 


CLIMATE.  69 

various  widely-distributed  localities,  but  the  scientific 
exploration  of  the  mineral  resources  is  only  just 
beginning  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  and  that  of  the  Mining  Bureau  of 
the  Philippine  government. 

CLIMATE. 

The  entire  Philippine  Archipelago  lies  within  the 
Torrid  Zone.  Its  climate  therefore  is  in  general 
tropical,  but  there  are  portions  of  the  island  to  which 
the  statement  cannot  be  strictly  applied.  Not  only 
are  there  great  climatic  differences  amongst  the  vari- 
ous islands,  but  in  those  of  the  larger  class  the  cli- 
matological  conditions  of  the  eastern  coasts  are  dis- 
tinctly different  from  those  in  the  interior  and  on 
the  western  coasts  of  the  same  islands.  Such  is  the 
case  in  Luzon,  Samar,  Leyte,  Mindanao,  Panay,  and 
Mindoro — more  particularly  in  the  last  three — and 
other  islands  whose  greatest  length  similarly  extends 
from  east  to  west. 

The  year  is  popularly  divided  into  three  seasons: 

(1)  November,  December,  January,  and  February, 
when  it  is  dry  and  temperate,  the  monthly  mean  tem- 
perature  oscillating  between   25    C.    and   26.5    C. ; 

(2)  March,  April,  May,  and  June,  the  hottest  period 
of  the  year,  the  monthly  mean  ranging  from  27.5  C. 
to  28.5  C. ;  (3)  July,  August,  September,  and  Octo- 
ber, which  is  an  intermediate  period,  the  mean  fluc- 
tuating between  26.5  C.  and  2T.5  C. 


70  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  climate  is  a  perpetual  summer,  with  a  tempera- 
ture varying  but  little.  There  is  a  great  deal  of 
humidity,  stimulating  to  vegetable  life,  but  enervat- 
ing to  human  beings.  It  rains  on  an  average  two 
hundred  days  in  the  year.  The  mean  heat  in  Luzon 
is  about  81°  Fahrenheit.  The  rainy  season  lasts  for 
about  six  months,  beginning  the  middle  of  April  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  islands,  but  on  the  coasts  washed 
by  the  Pacific,  the  order  of  the  wet  and  dry  seasons  is 
reversed.  In  general  the  hottest  period  is  during  the 
months  of  March,  April,  and  May,  except  on  the 
Pacific  littoral,  where  the  greatest  heat  is  experienced 
during  June,  July,  and  August. 

The  thermal  map  of  the  Archipelago  supports  the 
following  classification,  omitting  notice  of  localities 
which  are  necessarily  affected  by  unusual  altitude : 

First.  Regions  of  high  temperature.  The  great 
valley  of  the  Cagayan;  the  west  coast  as  far  south 
as  the  Bay  of  Manila;  the  plains  of  Pangasinan; 
the  eastern  portion  of  Tarlac  and  the  western  part 
of  Nueva  Ecija;  the  lowlands  of  Pampanga  and 
Bulacan;  the  northern  coast  of  Tayabas  and  Am- 
bos  Camarines ;  the  entire  southeastern  peninsula, 
with  the  exception  of  Sorsogon ;  the  northern  part 
of  the  Island  of  Panay. 

Second.  Regions  of  intermediate  temperature. 
That  portion  of  the  province  of  Pampanga  that  bor- 
ders upon  Zambales,  and  Bataan ;  the  uplands  of  Bula- 
can ;  the  province  of  Rizal ;  the  northern  and  eastern 


CLIMATE.  71 

sections  of  Bataan ;  Manila,  and  its  eastern  vicinage ; 
the  west  coasts  of  Samar,  Negros,  Panay,  and  Bohol ; 
the  island  of  Cebu,  and  the  peninsula  of  Zamboanga. 
Third.  Regions  of  mild  temperature.  The  east 
coast  of  the  province  of  Sorsogon;  the  greater  part 
of  the  eastern  Visayas  (Samar,  Leyte  and  the  ad- 
jacent islands);  the  peninsula  of  Surigao;  the  east 
coast  of  Mindanao;  the  entire  Sulu  Archipelago. 


THE  INHABITANTS. 


II. 

THE  INHABITANTS. 

Negrito  Characteristics — The  Malays  at  Home — Malay  Inva- 
sion of  the  Philippines — Early  Malay  Occupation — Le- 
gaspi's  Opinion  of  the  Natives — Modern  Estimates  of  the 
Filipino — An  Effort  to  Reconcile  Differences  of  Opinion 
— The  Non-Christian  Malays — The  Moros — The  Growth 
of  Population. 

The  aborigines  of  these  islands  are  the  Negritos, 
or  Aetas,  of  the  mountains,  who,  under  various  local 
designations,  are  found  widely  scattered  over  the 
Archipelago  to  the  number  of  about  30,000.  Doctor 
Barrows  says :  "The  origin  of  these  little  people  is 
unsolved,  but  even  in  historic  times  we  know  that 
they  were  more  widely  distributed,  if  not  more  numer- 
ous, than  now,  and  the  occurrence  of  the  same  little 
type  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  on  the  Andaman 
Islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean  leads  to  the  inference 
that  they  were  once  in  perhaps  even  continuous  oc- 
cupation of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  the  adjacent 
mainland  from  the  Andaman  Islands  to  the  Philip- 
pines.'' Their  resemblance  to  the  Papuans  has  sug- 
gested the  theory  that  New  Guinea  was  their  original 
habitat,  but  there  is  no  substantial  data  to  support 
the  surmise.  The  Negritos  are  completely  savage, 
and  almost  as  isolated  to-day  as  they  were  centuries 
ago. 

(75) 


76  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

They  are  much  darker  than  the  natives  of  Malayan 
descent,  and  many  of  them  are  quite  black.  They  do 
not  exhibit  the  Negroid  cranial  formation,  but  have 
the  same  cast  of  features,  with  "kinky"  hair.  They 
are  pygmies — the  average  height  of  their  men  being 
about  fifty-six  inches — ill-formed  and  unmuscular, 
but  supple  and  agile.  Their  intelligence  is  low. 

NEGEITO   CHAKACTERISTICS. 

They  are  deficient  in  courage  and  apparently  have 
few  attractive  characteristics.  All  attempts  at  civil- 
izing them,  collectively  or  individually,  have  failed, 
although  in  a  few  instances  they  have  been  domesti- 
cated. They  live  in  small  communities,  subsisting 
on  fish,  roots,  and  such  vegetables  as  may  be  raised 
with  the  least  effort.  Their  utmost  agricultural 
achievement  consists  in  scratching  the  earth  and 
casting  seed,  without  taking  the  trouble  to  clear  the 
ground.  Their  manner  of  life  is  characterized  by 
makeshift  methods  consistent  with  their  nomadic  ten- 
dencies. They  do  not  build  houses,  but  for  shelter 
use  a  kind  of  lean-to,  made  of  cane  and  matted  leaves. 
Not  infrequently  they  make  raids  into  the  plains  and 
carry  off  the  cattle  of  their  more  civilized  neighbors. 
The  costume  of  the  men  is  restricted  to  an  irreducible 
minimum  of  covering;  that  of  the  women  consists, 
at  most,  of  a  string  of  beads  and  a  loose  cloth  tied 
round  the  waist  and  reaching  to  the  knees.  The 
weapons  of  the  Negritos  are  a  bamboo  spear,  a  club, 


NEGRITO  CHARACTERISTICS.  77 

and  a  bow,  with  sometimes  poisoned  arrows.  Their 
religion,  like  that  of  all  primitive  people  who  live  in 
forests  and  mountains,  includes  a  belief  in  spirits, 
who  take  an  active  interest  in  the  affairs  of  men,  and 
the-  adoration  of  such  natural  phenomena  as  excite 
their  wonder  or  apprehension.  The  moon  is  their 
principal  deity.  They  have  a  great  respect  for  old 
age  and  an  awesome  reverence  for  death.  The  Negrito 
is  not  originally,  nor  by  natural  inclination,  a  hill- 
man.  The  advance  of  civilization  has  forced  him 
into  the  fastnesses  of  the  mountains.  The  earliest 
Malay  immigrants  found  him  in  undivided  posses- 
sion of  the  land.  The  newcomers,  until  their  num- 
bers became  great  enough  for  resistance,  lived  in 
vassalage  to  the  Negritos  and,  at  as  late  a  period  as 
that  of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  there  were  com- 
munities of  Tagalogs  in  Luzon  paying  tribute  to  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants. 

Pure-blooded  Negritos  still  exist  in  different  sec- 
tions, but  their  number  is  believed  to  be  decreasing. 
Their  mixture  with  the  Malayan  natives  has  generally 
resulted  in  an  advance  in  mental  and  physical  devel- 
opment. 

There  are  several  hybrid  races  sprung  from  union 
of  Malays  and  Negritos.  The  most  notable  of  these 
in  Luzon  are  the  Dumagas.  They  occupy  the  coun- 
try lying  east  of  the  Sierra  Madre.  The  Dumagas 
who  live  in  the  vicinity  of  Christian  villages  are 
slightly  removed  from  the  savage  state. 


78  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Mangyans,  a  Negrito- Visayan  race,  occupy 
nearly  the  entire  interior  of  Mindoro  Island  and  parts 
of  Paragua.  They  engage  in  a  primitive  form  of 
agriculture  and  collect  forest  produce,  which  is  bar- 
tered with  the  Christians.  These  people  have  made 
a  considerable  advance  from  the  state  of  the  aborig- 
ines. Worcester,  who  appears  to  have  been  much  im- 
pressed by  the  morality  of  the  Mangyans,  devotes  a 
considerable  portion  of  his  book  to  a  description  of 
their  customs,  etc.* 

Doctor  David  P.  Barrows,  Chief  of  the  Philippines 
Bureau  of  non-Christian  Tribes,  believes  that,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Negritos,  all  the  tribes  of  the 
islands,  whether  Christian,  Muhammadan,  or  pagan, 
are  derived  from  the  Malayan  race.  "We  probably 
have,"  he  says,  "in  these  tribes,  two  types,  wrhich  rep- 
resent an  earlier  and  a  later  wave  of  immigration,  but 
all  came  from  the  south,  all  speak  languages  belong- 
ing to  one  common  stock,  and  all  are  closely  related 
in  physical  type  and  qualities  of  mind.  As  represen- 
tative of  the  first  migratory  movement  may  be  named 
the  Igorot,  the  mountain  head-hunters  of  Northern 
Luzon,  and  of  the  latter  almost  any  of  the  present 
Christian,  or  Muhammadan  tribes.  The  migratory 
period  of  this  latter  type  is  almost  covered  by  the  his- 
torical accounts  of  the  exploration  and  settlement  of 
the  Far  East." 


*The  Philippine  Islands.     Dean  C.  Worcester.     New  York? 
1899. 


THE  MALAYS  AT  HOME.  79 

The  Portuguese  adventurers,  who  were  first,  of  all 
white  men,  to  reach  Asia  by  sea,  found  the  territory 
we  call  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  Archipelago  inhab- 
ited by  a  people  of  Mongolian  origin,  who  styled  them- 
selves Malayu.  They  were  short  of  stature,  of  a 
brown  color,  with  black  hair  and  prominent  facial 
bones.  They  engaged  in  agriculture,  had  some  trade, 
and  displayed  a  tendency  to  seafaring. 

THE  MALAYS  AT  HOME. 

A  thousand  years  before  the  arrival  of  the  Portu- 
guese the  Archipelago  had  been  invaded  by  the  Hin- 
dus, who  subjugated  some  of  the  islands  and  estab- 
lished in  them  the  Brahmin  religion.  Traces  of  this 
Hindu  occupation  are  to  be  found  at  the  present  day 
in  the  ruins  of  temples  upon  the  island  of  Java. 

Later,  the  Arabs  began  to  trade  in  this  region  and, 
following  their  invariable  custom  of  proselyting 
wherever  they  went,  converted  large  numbers  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  particularly  the  dwellers  along  the 
seaboard,  to  Islam.  Before  the  advent  of  the  Euro- 
peans, Muhammadanism  had  completely  supplanted 
Brahmanism,  but  the  influence  of  the  Hindu  occu- 
pation upon  the  language  of  the  people  is  traceable 
to-day  in  the  great  proportion  of  words  of  Sanskrit 
origin,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
Malays  owe  a  considerable  advance  toward  civiliza- 
tion to  the  Hindu  invasion. 

Sometime  about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth,  or  the 


80  THE  PHILIPPINES 

beginning  of  the  fourteenth,  century  these  Muhamma- 
dan  "Sea  Folk/7  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago  were  called,  made  a  settlement  in  the 
northwest  section  of  Borneo,  which  was  already  peo- 
pled by  tribes  of  Malayan  origin  in.  a  low  state  of 
development.  From  Borneo  the  Orang  Salat  (Sea 
Folk)  advanced  to  the  Sulu  Archipelago  and  thence 
to  Mindanao,  to  Mindoro,  and  the  shore  around 
Manila  Bay. 

MALAY  INVASION  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Muhammadan  invaders  found  upon  the  islands, 
besides  the  Negrito  aborigines,  another  race  of  the 
same  physical  type  as  themselves  and  speaking  a 
language  which  had  the  same  root  as  their  own. 
These  were  the  descendants  of  an  earlier,  or  per- 
haps of  more  than  one,  tide  of  Malay  immigration. 
They  occupied  a  much  lower  grade  in  the  scale  of  cul- 
ture than  did  their  Muhammadan  kinsmen.  They 
painted  and  tattooed  their  bodies  and  lived  in  nest- 
like  houses  in  the  trees.  They  were  pagans  and  ate 
dog  meat. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Ne- 
gritos were  still  a  very  numerous  element  in  the  popu- 
lation of  the  Philippines.  The  wild  tribes  of  Malayan 
origin  probably  predominated  over  them  in  the 
Visayas  and  some  of  the  southern  islands.  The  Mu- 
hammadans  were  as  yet  numerically  weak,  but  the 
tide  of  their  immigration  had  fairly  set  in  and  they 


MALAY  INVASION.  81 

began  from  this  time  to  come  into  the  country  in 
constantly  increasing  numbers*  A  boatload  of  these 
newcomers  were  the  first  natives  with  whom  Magel- 
lan's expedition  came  in  contact  when  they  landed  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Sanaar.  One  Pigafetta  kept  a 
diary  of  this  afirst  voyage  around  the  world,"  from 
which  we  get  the  earliest  description  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  island.*  The  vessels  of  Magellan  visited 
several  of  the  islands  in  the  Archipelago  south  of 
Luzon,  but  did  not  touch  there.  Everywhere  they 
found  a  very  sparse  population,  and  despite  their 
offers  of  merchandise  in  exchange  for  provisions  they 
were  with  difficulty  able  to  secure  enough  food  to 
stave  off  starvation.  Cebu  seems  to  have  been  one 
of  the  most  populous  and  important  centers.  Ves- 
sels from  far  foreign  parts  came  there  for  gold  and 
slaves.  The  voyagers  heard  that  a  junk  had  departed 
thence  to  Siam  just  before  their  arrival  and  were  told 
that  the  Chinese  had  been  trading  with  the  islands  for 
centuries.  "To  the  northeast/7  says  Pigafetta,  "is 
the  island  of  Lozon,  which  is  very  great,  to  which 
go  every  year  for  the  sake  of  traffic  six  or  eight 
junks  from  the  country  of  the  Lechios,"  by  which  he 
probably  meant  one  of  the  provinces  of  China.f  At 

*  Primer  Viaje  alrededor  del  Mundo.  Spanish  translation, 
Madrid,  1899. 

f  Some  of  the  writers  of  the  sixteenth  century  entertained 
a  belief,  for  which  there  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any 
£ood  ground,  that  the  Philippines  at  one  time  constituted  a 
colony  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  Mendoza  in  his  History  of 

6 


82  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  island  of  Sulu  the  pearl  fisheries,  for  which  the 
locality  is  celebrated  to-day,  excited  the  interest  of 
the  Spaniards.  On  the  coast  of  Mindanao  they  fell 
in  with  the  curious  "sea  gypsies,"  the  Samal  Laut, 
who  frequent  the  same  region  at  the  present  time  and 
now,  as  then,  form  communities  of  boat-dwellers, 
moving  from  place  to  place  with  the  changing  seasons 
and  conditions.  They  passed  an  island  "whose  in- 
habitants," says  the  chronicler,  "are  negroes  like 
those  of  Ethiopia."  This  is  the  only  mention  he 
makes  of  the  Negritos,  who  must,  however,  have  been 
numerous  inland  of  several  of  the  islands  touched  at. 

EAKLY    MALAY    OCCUPATION. 

The  three  expeditions  succeeding  that  of  Magellan 
made  no  settlement  in  the  islands  and  added  hardly 
anything  to  the  information  we  have  regarding  them. 
In  1565  Legaspi  landed  on  the  island  of  Cebu  and, 
despite  resistance,  maintained  his  footing,  with  per- 
haps one  hundred  and  fifty  men,  until  reinforce- 
ments reached  him  three  years  later  from  Mexico. 
Legaspi  then  proceeded  to  the  conquest  of  Panay, 

China  (1580)  states  that  "these  islands  were  formerly  sub- 
ject to  the  King  of  China  until  he  relinquished  them  volun- 
tarily." In  "The  Philippine  Islands"  (1609),  De  Morga 
said:  "The  Dutch  Memorable  Embassies  states  that  the 
Spaniards  subjected  these  islands  almost  without  striking  a 
blow,  the  inhabitants  having  forgotten  the  art  of  war,  and 
almost  renounced  civil  life  since  they  shook  off  the  Chinese 
Yoke.  Since  the  Chinese  had  lost  their  dominion  over  these 
islands  they  had  not  ceased  to  trade  with  them,"  etc. 


EARLY  MALAY  OCCUPATION.  83 

which  was  made  the  base  from  which  the  occupation 
of  Mindoro  and  Luzon  was  effected.  The  most  popu- 
lous portions  of  the  Archipelago  at  this  time  were 
Cebu,  Panay  in  the  vicinity  of  Iloilo,  the  country 
about  Manila  Bay,  and  around  Laguna  de  Bay,  the 
valleys  of  the  Pampanga  and  Bicol  rivers,  and  the 
coast  of  Ilocos.  Even  in  these  sections,  however,  the 
inhabitants  were  very  scanty,  and  the  largest  centers 
consisted  of  communities  of  only  a  few  thousand 
souls  under  their  independent  chieftains,  who  still 
retained  the  Hindu  title  of  raj  a.  Tavera  says,  "these 
small  groups  were  in  many  places  known  by  the  name 
of  barangay,  which  is  also  the  exact  word  used  to  de- 
scribe a  small  craft  used  by  the  indigines,  and  would 
therefore  appear  to  indicate  that  the  people  forming 
each  of  these  town  groups  were  descendants  of  the 
crews  of  particular  crafts  since  the  time  of  their 
original  immigration  to  these  islands.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  various  barangayes  was  in  some  cases 
not  over  fifty  inhabitants  and  in  others,  as  was  ob- 
served by  Selcedo  in  Ilocos,  the  number  reached  as 
high  as  seven  thousand."*  Slavery  was  universally 
maintained  amongst  these  naTTves  of  Ualay^blood. 

*  "The  term  balavgay,  or  boat,  still  applied  to  the  villages, 
recalls  the  time  when  these  mariners,  encamping  on  the 
beach,  continued  to  lead  much  the  same  life  as  when  scour- 
ing the  high  seas  in  their  praus.  As  was  the  case  with  the 
sampans,  or  junks,  of  the  more  recent  Chinese  settlers  every 
balangay  became  the  cradle  of  a  Malay  colony."  The  Earth 
and  its  Inhabitants.  Elisee  Reclus.  New  York,  1892. 


84  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

There  were  different  degrees  of  the  condition,  and 
it  was  created  in  a  variety  of  ways.  Prisoners  of 
war,  or  persons  secured  by  purchase,  were  absolute 
chattels.  Others  were  held  in  perpetual  service  who 
might  not  be  disposed  of  by  their  masters.  A  man 
sometimes  entered  into  bondage  as  security  for  a  loan, 
and  in  this  case  the  creditor  might  transfer  the  debt 
and  the  security.  One  forfeited  his  freedom  by 
trespassing  upon  the  lands  or  dwelling  of  the  chief, 
or  by  looking  at  the  chief's  wife.  Slavery  was  some- 
times the  penalty,  by  commutation  from  capital  pun- 
ishment, for  certain  crimes,  such  as  the  seduction 
of  the  wife,  or  daughter,  of  a  leading  member  of  the 
community. 

Each  resident,  or  perhaps  family  unit,  of  the 
barangay  had  a  definite  allotment  of  land.  E"o  mem- 
ber of  the  community  might  violate  his  neighbor's 
landrights,  nor  might  the  members  of  one  barangay 
encroach  upon  the  boundaries  of  another.  Land  might 
pass  by  purchase,  gift,  or  inheritance,  and  in  some 
instances  the  chief  had  acquired  all  the  land  of  the 
barangay. 

Occasionally  independent  barangayes  would  form 
a  confederation  for  mutual  defense,  or  for  co-opera- 
tion in  some  enterprise.  They  would  then  create  a 
common  chief  by  popular  election,  usually  from  one 
of  the  families  in  which  that  office  was  hereditary. 
The  chief,  who  was  called  raja,  or  daio,  acted  as 
judge  in  all  criminal  trials  and  civil  disputes.  There 


EARLY  MALAY  OCCUPATION.  85 

were  certain  recognized  offenses  and  penalties,  but 
nothing  approaching  to  a  code  of  laws.  It  was  al- 
most always  possible  for  the  criminal  to  secure  exemp- 
tion from  other  punishment  by  the  payment  of  a 
compensatory  fine  to  the  injured  person,  or  to  the 
chief.  A  constant  state  of  petty  warfare  existed.  In 
addition  to  fights  among  themselves,  the  various  com- 
munities, or  federations,  had  to  repel  the  attacks  of 
ladrones  and  pirates  and  to  hold  in  check  the  Negritos. 
As  a  rule  only  free  men  were  engaged  as  warriors, 
but  slaves  were  commonly  employed  as  rowers  in  the 
sea  fights.  The  arms  used  were  lances,  bows  and 
arrows,  and  the  famous  Malay  kris.  For  protection, 
helmets,  and  shields  of  wood  and  copper,  were  em- 
ployed, and  breastplates  of  horn.  In  various  locali- 
ties the  Spaniards  were  opposed  by  natives  using  can- 
non. There  was  a  foundry  in  Manila  under  the 
supervision  of  a  Portuguese,  or  Hindu,  where  the 
cannon  were  cast.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the 
art  was  learned  from  the  Chinese.  Legaspi,  writing 
to  the  King  of  Spain  (1570),  regarding  the  Moros  of 
Panay,  says:  "The  latter  have  artillery,  which  they 
themselves  cast  and  finish,  and  likewise  powTder  and 
other  ammunition.  ...  I  send  you  two  bronze 
culverins  made  by  the  Moros  of  this  land,  so  that 
your  Majesty  may  see  what  dexterity  they  possess 
in  making  and  casting  artillery.77 

Money  was  unknown  and  crude  gold  was  used  as 
a  substitute,  but  their  trade  was  for  the  most  part 


86  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

conducted  on  a  system  of  barter  in  kind,  that  was, 
perhaps,  better  adapted  to  the  economic  condition  of 
the  bulk  of  the  people.  They  had  standard  weights 
and  measures  derived  frcm  the  Chinese,  some  of 
which  are  still  in  use.  They  held  periodical  fairs 
(an  old-time  institution  of  the  Malays)  at  different 
points,  to  which  the  natives  of  neighboring  districts 
resorted  in  their  light  draft  boats,  bringing  the  prod- 
uct of  the  field  and  the  loom,  as  well  as  articles  of 
ornament  fashioned  from  gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
mother-of-pearl. 

Some  of  the  Malayan  tribes  had  a  primitive  liter- 
ature. Their  alphabet  consisted  of  seventeen  letters, 
three  of  which  were  vowels.  Like  the  early  Singalese, 
they  employed  the  palm  leaf  in  making  their  books. 
These,  which  doubtless  contained  valuable  records  of 
their  history  and  customs,  were  unfortunately  burned 
by  the  first  missionaries,  who  deemed  them  an  impedi- 
ment to  the  furtherance  of  the  conversion  of  the 
islanders. 

The  religion  of  the  Malayan  pagans  seems  to  have 
been  an  idolatrous  polytheism.  They  recognized  three 
supreme  deities,  by  whom  all  the  affairs  of  life  were 
ordered.  There  were  a  number  of  minor  gods,  or 
spirits  of  malevolent  intent,  who  might,  however,  be 
propitiated  on  occasion.  Each  family  worshipped  the 
spirits  of  its  ancestors,  termed  anitos,  who  were  be- 
lieved to  be  capable  of  exerting  a  beneficial  influence 
over  the  lives  of  their  descendants.  Anito  idols,  fash- 


EARLY  MALAY  OCCUPATION.  87 

ioned  from  various  materials,  were  part  of  the  furni- 
ture of  every  home.  A  certain  number  of  slaves  were 
slain  and  buried  with  a  man  of  consequence  in  order 
that  he  might  have  a  proper  retinue  in  the  next 
world.  The  Visayans  interred  the  slaves  alive  on 
these  occasions  in  the  belief  that  living  attendants 
would  be  more  pleasing  to  the  deceased  noble.  Some- 
times slaves  were  killed  and  their  spirits  despatched  to 
the  master's  ancestors  for  the  purpose  of  pleading  with 
them  to  remove  from  him  some  illness  or  calamity. 

The  funeral  ceremonies  were  feasts  at  which  it  was 
customary  to  dissipate  in  food  and  drink  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  property  left  by  the  deceased. 
At  these  ceremonies,  animals,  and  sometimes  slaves, 
were  sacrificed,  and  the  priests  performed  war  dances 
of  the  wildest  character. 

The  costume  of  men  and  women  was  similar,  ex- 
cept that  the  latter  wore  cloth  of  a  finer  texture.  It 
consisted  of  a  loose  shirt-like  garment  not  unlike  that 
worn  by  the  up-country  Filipino  at  the  present  time, 
reaching  to  below  the  loins,  supplemented  by  a  cloth 
hanging  from  the  waist.  It  was  their  custom  to  go 
without  head-covering.  The  apparel  of  the  well-to-do 
was  decorated  with  laces  and  embroidery,  which  the 
natives  made  with  great  skill.  Men  and  women  wore 
combs  in  their  hair  and  adorned  their  bodies  with 
ear  and  finger  rings,  bangles,  necklaces,  and  anklets. 
The  majority  of  the  people  went  barefoot,  but  the 
upper  class  wore  shoes,  or  slippers.  It  was  consid- 


88  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ered  a  mark  of  distinction  to  perforate  the  teeth  and 
fill  the  holes  with  gold,  and  to  file  the  incisors  to  a 
point.  The  latter  practice  still  prevails  among  cer- 
tain wild  tribes. 

Their  houses,  of  bamboo  and  palm  leaf  thatch,  were 
erected  at  a  considerable  height  upon  timber  supports. 
A  village  was  frequently  built  several  hundred  feet 
out  in  the  water  of  a  lake,  or  river,  or  upon  the  shore 
of  the  sea. 

It  is  from  these  people  that  the  great  body  of  Chris- 
tian and  domesticated  natives  of  the  Philippines  are 
descended.  They  are  from  the  same  Malayan  stock 
as  the  Moro,  but  owing  to  differences  of  religion,  en- 
vironment, manner  of  life  and  political  condition, 
have  developed  diversified  physical  and  mental  char- 
acteristics. They  are  the  "representative"  people 
of  the  Archipelago,  and  to  them  the  name  "Filipino" 
is  applied  in  a  distinctive  sense. 

LEGASPl's  OPINION  OF  THE  NATIVES. 

In  1565,  after  four  years'  residence  in  the  islands, 
Legaspi  wrote  thus  of  the  Malay  natives  of  Cebu: 

"These  people  wear  clothes,  but  they  go  barefooted. 
Their  dress  is  made  of  cotton,  or  of  a  kind  of 
grass  resembling  raw  silk.  .  .  .  They  are  a 
crafty  and  treacherous  race,  and  understand  every- 
thing. .  .  .  They  are  naturally  of  a  cowardly 
disposition  and  distrustful,  and  if  one  has  treated 
them  ill,  they  never  came  back.  .  .  .  They  are  a 


LEGASPI'S  OPINION  OF  THE  NATIVES.  89 

people  extremely  vicious,  fickle,  untruthful,  and 
full  of  superstitions.  JSTo  law  binds  relative  to 
relative,  parents  to  children,  or  brother  to  brother. 
No  person  favors  another  unless  it  is  for  his  own 
interest.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  man,  in  some  time 
of  need,  shelters  a  relative,  or  a  brother,  in  his  house, 
supports  him  and  provides  him  with  food  for  a  few 
days,  he  will  consider  that  relative  as  his  slave  from 
that  time  on  and  is  served  by  him.  .  .  .  When 
these  people  give  or  lend  anything  to  one  another  the 
favor  must  be  repaid  double,  even  if  between  parents 
and  children,  or  between  brothers.  At  times  they  sell 
their  own  children  when  there  is  little  need  or  neces- 
sity for  doing  so. 

"Privateering  and  robbery  have  a  natural  attraction 
for  them.  Whenever  the  occasion  presents  itself  they 
rob  one  another,  even  if  they  be  neighbors,  or  rela- 
tives, and  when  they  see,  or  meet,  one  another  in  the 
open  fields  at  nightfall  they  rob  and  seize  one  another. 
.  .  .  Any  native  who  possesses  a  basketful  of  rice 
will  not  seek  for  more,  or  do  any  further  work  until 
it  is  finished.  Thus  does  their  idleness  surpass  their 
covetousness.  ...  I  believe  that  these  natives 
could  be  easily  subdued  by  good  treatment  and  the 
display  of  kindness,  .  .  .  but  if  we  undertake 
to  subdue  them  by  force  of  arms  and  make  war  on 
them  they  will  perish  and  we  will  lose  both  friends 
and  foes,  for  they  readily  abandon  their  houses  and 
towns  for  other  places,  or  precipitately  disperse  among 


90  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  mountains  and  uplands,  and  neglect  to  plant  their 
fields.  .  .  .  One  can  see  a  proof  of  this  in  the 
length  of  time  it  takes  them  to  settle  down  again  in 
a  town  which  has  been  plundered,  even  if  no  one  of 
them  has  been  killed,  or  captured.  .  .  .  They 
easily  believe  what  is  told  and  presented  forcibly  to 
them.  They  hold  some  superstitions,  such  as  the 
casting  of  lots  before  doing  anything,  and  other 
wretched  practices,  all  of  which  will  be  easily  eradi- 
cated if  we  have  some  priests  who  know  their  lan- 
guage and  will  preach  to  them." 

The  early  descriptions  of  native  character  must  be 
taken  with  a  great  deal  of  reserve.  Indeed,  nothing 
in  the  least  approaching  a  general  agreement  upon 
the  subject  has  ever  been  arrived  at.  When  several 
witnesses  in  later  times,  who  have  enjoyed  the  ad- 
vantage of  intimate  contact  with  the  native  over  a 
long  term  of  years,  reach  materially  differing,  and 
often  contradictory,  conclusions,  it  is  easy  to  believe 
that  the  earlier  Spanish  residents,  whose  opportuni- 
ties for  close  observation  were  much  inferior,  should 
have  erred  in  their  estimates.  Furthermore,  the 
point  of  view  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  was  entirely 
unfavorable  to  a  right  understanding.  They  had  a 
fanatical  belief  in  a  divine  mission  and  considered 
the  islands  a  possession  of  their  King  by  right  of 
Papal  gift.  That  the  natives  did  not  fall  in  with 
this  idea  was  incomprehensible  to  them  and  created 
in  their  minds  an  adverse  prejudice. 


LEGASPI'S  OPINION  OF  THE  NATIVES.  91 

During  the  past  four  centuries  of  European  in- 
fluence the  character  of  the  Filipino  has  doubtless 
improved  in  many  respects,  but  the  more  recent  writ- 
ers have  depicted  it  in  anything  but  a  flattering  light. 
The  character  of  a  people  is  always,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  a  reflection  of  its  government,  and  the  history 
of  the  colony  under  Spanish  dominion  will  afford 
many  a  key  to  the  present  traits  and  disposition  of 
the  Filipinos.  Tomas  de  Comyn  expresses  this  idea 
in  his  "State  of  the  Philippine  Islands"  (1820). 
Referring  to  the  Christian  tribes,  whom  we  now  have 
under  consideration,  he  says : 

"They  are  credulous  and  superstitious,  cunning, 
yet  of  weak  capacities,  but  possibly  a  great  number 
of  their  defects  may  be  attributed  to  their  ignorance, 
want  of  civilization,  and  the  bad  administration  of 
justice.  They  are,  nevertheless,  hospitable  to  stran- 
gers and,  excepting  in  their  robberies,  piracies,  and 
acts  of  public,  and  private,  revenge,  harmless  in  their 
manners. 

"Besides  distance  from  the  mother  country  and, 
as  will  be  seen  by  their  history,  the  dreadful  misfor- 
tunes to  which  they  have  been  so  often  exposed,  the 
wavering  and  uncertain  nature  of  the  regulations  in- 
tended for  their  government,  the  hostility  of  the 
European  rivals  (to  one  another),  and  the  litigious 
spirit  of  the  inhabitants  themselves,  as  well  as  the 
unceasing  lawsuits  and  dissensions  to  which  this  has 


92  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

given  rise  have  been  of  most  material  injury  to  the 

colony." 

MODERN  ESTIMATES  OF  THE  FILIPINO. 

Although  the  differences  of  opinion  prevail  at  all 
periods  among  writers  dealing  with  the  Filipinos,  it 
is  noticeable  that  their  strictures  decrease  with  the 
advancing  years  and  that  their  condemnation  is  more 
frequently  tempered  by  the  mention  of  redeeming 
features. 

Dean  C.  Worcester,  at  present  a  member  of  the 
Philippine  Commission,  writes  as  follows: 

"The  native  is  a  philosopher.  He  works  when 
obliged  to  and  rests  whenever  he  can  get  an  oppor- 
tunity. .  .  .  From  the  very  outset  our  servants 
stole  from  us.  .  .  .  The  Philippine  native  seems 
ever  ready  to  kill  his  last  fowl  for  a  stranger  or  share 
with  him  his  last  pot  of  rice.  .  .  .  On  the  whole 
I  believe  that  they  are  fairly  intelligent,  and  they 
are  often  most  anxious  for  an  opportunity  to  get 
some  education.  .  .  .  They  frequently  lie  with- 
out any  excuse  whatever,  unless  it  be  the  aesthetic 
satisfaction  derived  from  the  exercise  of  their  remark- 
able talent  in  this  direction.  When  one  of  them  is 
detected  in  a  falsehood  he  is  simply  chagrined  that 
his  performance  was  not  more  creditably  carried  out. 
He  feels  no  sense  of  moral  guilt  and  cannot  under- 
stand being  punished  for  what  is  not  to  his  mind  an 
offense.  .  .  .  The  Filipino  certainly  has  many 


MODERN  ESTIMATES  OF  THE  FILIPINO.          93 

good  qualities  to  offset  his  bad  traits.  The  traveler 
cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  by  his  open-handed  and 
cheerful  hospitality.  ...  If  cleanliness  be  next 
to  godliness,  he  certainly  has  much  to  recommend  him. 
Every  village  has  its  bath  if  there  is  any  chance  for 
one,  and  men,  women,  and  children  patronize  it 
liberally.  .  .  .  Hardly  less  noticeable  than  the 
almost  universal  hospitality  are  the  well-regulated 
homes  and  the  happy  family  life  that  one  finds  to  be 
the  rule.  Children  are  orderly,  respectful,  and  obedi- 
ent to  their  parents.  Wives  are  allowed  an  amount 
of  liberty  hardly  equaled  in  any  other  Eastern  coun- 
try, and  they  seldom  abuse  it. 

"The  native  is  self-respecting  and  self -restrained  to 
a  remarkable  degree.  He  is  patient  under  misfortune, 
and  forbearing  under  provocation.  While  it  is 
stretching  the  truth  to  say  that  he  never  reveals  anger, 
he  certainly  succeeds  much  better  in  controlling  him- 
self than  does  the  average  European.  .  .  .  He  is 
a  kind  father  and  a  dutiful  son.  His  aged  relatives 
are  never  left  in  want,  but  are  brought  to  his  home 
and  are  welcome  to  share  the  best  that  it  affords  to 
the  end  of  their  days.*  Among  his  fellows  he  is 
genial  and  sociable.  He  loves  to  sing,  dance,  and 
make  merry.  He  is  a  born  musician.  .  .  .  He 


*The  testimony  to  the  Filipino's  hospitality  and  his  re- 
gard for  the  welfare  of  his  family  and  relatives  is  indisput- 
able, although  in  strong  contrast  to  the  statements  of  Legaspi 
and  other  early  writers. 


94  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

is  naturally  fearless  and  admires  nothing  so  much  as 
bravery  in  others." 

AN   EFFOET   TO  RECONCILE  DIFFERENCES   OF  OPINION. 

Perhaps  the  differences  of  conclusion  regarding  the 
Filipino  character,  to  which  we  have  referred,  are 
due  in  some  measure  to  failure  to  allow  for  artificial, 
or  acquired,  characteristics  in  the  cases  of  the  Fili- 
pinos of  the  cities  and  large  centers  of  civilization, 
who  exhibit  effects  of  long-continued  and  close  con- 
tact with  their  European  over-lords.  A  subject  race 
which  is  doomed  to  occupy  a  position  of  hopeless  in- 
feriority is  more  apt  to  acquire  the  vices  than  the 
virtues  of  its  conquerors  and  is  often  forced  in  self- 
protection  to  adopt  the  natural  safeguards  of  the  weak 
— prevarication,  deception,  treachery  and  the  rest. 
Other  characteristics  of  the  native  may  be  attribut- 
able, in  degree  at  least,  to  the  conditions  of  domina- 
tion under  which  they  have  lain  for  centuries. 

Perhaps  the  most  universal  characteristic  of  the 
native  is  his  disregard  for  truth.  This  is  a  confirmed 
habit  due  to  mental  perversion,  rather  than  to  vicious 
impulse,  or  sinister  calculation.  The  Filipino  lies 
spontaneously,  often  without  purpose,  and  always 
without  any  sense  of  wrong.  This  peculiarity  is 
shared  by  the  Chinese  and  other  Orientals.  In  some 
cases,  where  falsehood  is  contrary  to  the  religious  doc- 
trine, justification  is  found  for  it,  and,  perhaps, 
priestly  excuse  extended,  when  it  is  used  to  confound 


THE  TRUE  FILIPINO.  95 

the  foreigner,  or  the  oppressor.  After  all,  this  is 
only  human  nature  in  the  raw. 

Until  it  is  thoroughly  understood,  and  allowance 
is  made  for  inherent  peculiarities,  the  character  of 
an  Oriental  people  cannot  be  fairly  measured  by 
Western  standards,  nor,  since  their  reasoning  is  based 
upon  conflicting  principles,  can  one  race  judge  the 
other  with  impartiality.  The  European  verdict  that 
"all  Asiatics  are  liars"  is  true  only  from  the  view- 
point of  the  former.  The  underdog  will  generally 
lie  for  the  sake  of  saving  his  hide,  and  Europeans 
under  such  conditions  have  frequently  lied,  indi- 
vidually and  collectively.  The  early  conquests  of  the 
white  men  have  invariably  been  marked  by  bad  faith 
toward  the  conquered,  and  the  story  of  Spanish  col- 
onization is  certainly  not  less  marred  in  this  manner 
than  that  of  any  other  nation. 

The  Oriental  is  above  all  things  exuberantly  imag- 
inative; he  thinks  in  hyperbole  and  speaks  in  hyper- 
bole. The  consequence  is  that  the  slow-blooded 
European,  with  his  precise  mental  processes  and  lit- 
eral expression,  is  very  apt  to  conceive  deliberate 
deception  where  no  such  design  is  entertained.  Even 
when  the  Oriental  lies  with  forethought  the  animus 
behind  the  act  is  frequently  harmless.  It  is  often 
merely  a  resistless  ebullition  of  his  innate  love  of  sub- 
tle processes  or  a  desire  to  please  his  hearer.  Such  a 
mental  condition  is  difficult  of  comprehension  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  with  his  inborn  habit  of  directness  in 
thought  and  speech. 


96  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Laziness  is  another  defect  with  which  the  native  is 
justly  charged,  but  here  again  it  is  not  difficult  to 
find  extenuating  circumstances.  The  energy  of  any 
people  is  measurable  by  the  stimulus  to  exertion  to 
which  it  is  subject.  The  indolence  natural  to  all  in- 
habitants of  the  tropics  has  been  encouraged  in  the 
Filipino  by  the  knowledge  that  increased  effort  would 
entail  an  increase  in  his  taxation,  rental,  and  con- 
tribution to  the  Church,  without  commensurate  ad- 
vantage to  himself ;  thus  his  ambition  has  been  reason- 
ably limited  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  slight  im- 
provement in  his  material  comfort.  Hitherto  the 
Filipino  has  not  had  a  sufficient  incentive  to  exer- 
tion. With  worthy  objects  for  which  to  work;  with 
the  possibilities  of  social  advancement  and  material 
betterment ;  with  opportunity  for  mental  culture,  and 
with  the  spread  of  education,  may  come,  or  rather 
surely  will  come,  awakening  of  ambition  and  quick- 
ening of  energy.  It  is  not,  however — fortunately 
for  the  Western  nations — possible  that  a  tropical  peo- 
ple should  exhibit  the  activity  characteristic  of  the 
dwellers  in  temperate  climes. 

The  Filipino  is  not  practical.  He  has  no  concern 
beyond  to-day,  and  is  apparently  incapable  of  a  sus- 
tained purpose,  but  when  one  surveys  the  environ- 
ment, and  political  and  economic  condition,  of  these 
people  during  the  past  centuries  it  is  difficult  to 
see  how  it  could  be  otherwise  with  them.  On  the 
other  hand  the  native  is  very  susceptible  to  guidance 


THE  TRUE  FILIPINO  97 

and  is  always  willing,  and  frequently  eager,  to  learn. 
Unlike  the  Chinaman,  he  has  a  humble  estimate  of 
his  own  mental  powers,  and  never  thinks  to  pit  his 
own  ideas  against  those  of  his  European  mentor.  In- 
deed, the  Filipino  is  a  docile  and  a  faithful  pupil,  and 
probably  much  of  the  condemnation  of  him  as  a  la- 
borer is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  hands  of  a  Euro- 
pean master,  he  is  prone  to  refrain  from  all  initiative 
in  action,  and  even  thought,  and  to  do  precisely  as  he 
is  told.  It  is  more  than  likely  that,  if  intelligent  ad- 
vantage is  taken  of  this  tendency,  the  native  appren- 
tice may  be  converted  into  a  highly  capable  and  satis- 
factory workman.  He  lacks  originality,  it  is  true, 
but  he  has  the  imitative  faculty  in  an  extreme  degree, 
and  aonly  needs  to  be  shown/'  as  one  who  has  em- 
ployed native  labor  extensively  declares,  in  order 
to  do  a  thing  as  well  as  the  demonstrator.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  restricted  place  opened  to  the 
Filipino  in  the  Spanish  civilization  afforded  little 
scope  for  the  cultivation  of  responsibility,  initiative, 
or  endeavor.  Under  the  encouraging  conditions  of 
the  new  regime,  with  its  ample  opportunities,  he  may 
develop  unsuspected  qualities  of  a  high  order. 

Under  guidance,  or  control,  the  average  native  will 
live  in  a  useful  and  rational  manner,  but  he  is  very 
thoughtless,  and,  lacking  good  influence,  is  likely  to 
act  unwisely,  and  may  even  commit  grave  offenses  on 
impulse,  or  for  want  of  serious  consideration.  Sel- 
dom, however,  will  he  be  guilty  of  a  crime  on  his  own 


98  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

initiative.  There  is  comparatively  little  vice  in  his 
composition,  but  he  is  easily  led  toward  good,  or  evil. 
In  fact  his  faults  and  shortcomings  are  largely  those 
of  an  infant  stage  of  mental  development.  There  is 
much  of  the  child  in  his  makeup,  and  of  a  child  whose 
training  has  not  been  of  the  best.  He  is  deferent, 
almost  to  the  extent  of  servility,  to  superiority  of 
intellect,  station,  or  wealth.  Although  he  exhibits 
ingenuity  and  resourcefulness  in  the  everyday  affairs 
of  life,  he  lacks  self-reliance  and  moral  courage.  He 
is  not  deficient  in  physical  bravery,  but  the  quality  is 
of  the  spontaneous  and  evanescent  order.  He  is  read- 
ily depressed  by  a  check,  or  by  a  sense  of  inferiority 
to  his  antagonist.  Unlike  the  Moro,  he  accepts  de- 
feat with  placid  resignation,  and  as  a  victor  he  is 
cruel  and  ungenerous.  Like  the  Sipahi,  the  Filipino 
makes  an  excellent  fighting  man  under  European 
leadership,  but  his  worth  in  this  capacity  is  entirely 
dependent  upon  such  leadership.  His  dislike  of  dis- 
cipline is  a  bar  to  his  becoming  a  good  soldier  at  pres- 
ent. He  displays  the  common  Oriental  trait  of  en- 
durance under  hardship  and  suffering  and  the  equally 
common  Oriental  tendency  to  supine  submission  to 
the  buffets  of  Fate. 

The  Filipino  is  extremely  sober,  and  scrupulously 
clean  in  his  person  and  surroundings,  traits  that  may 
have  been  derived  from  early  Hindu  influences,  and 
which  were  certainly  never  enhanced  by  contact  with 
the  aboriginal  tribes.  He  has  the  domestic  qualities 


THE  TRUE  FILIPINO.  99 

well  developed.  He  is  a  good  father  and  husband, 
and  displays  great  regard  and  respect  for  aged  pa- 
rents. Indeed,  the  ties  of  relationship  are  acknowl- 
edged to  a  remarkable  extent.  A  household  com- 
monly includes  twro,  or  three,  poor  kinsmen,  whose 
connection  with  the  heads  of  the  family  is  almost 
too  remote  to  be  traced.  His  hospitality  is  proverbial. 
A  well-to-do  Filipino  will  house  a  traveler  as  long 
as  he  may  choose  to  stay.  Everything  that  his  host 
possesses — horses,  carriages,  guns,  servants,  and  the 
rest — is  cheerfully  placed  at  the  command  of  the  vis- 
itor. ISTo  remuneration  whatever  would  be  accepted, 
nor  is  any  kind  of  return  expected,  or  desired. 

The  Filipino  is  grave  and  dignified  in  bearing,  and 
rarely  displays  emotion  of  any  kind,  although  he  is 
capable  of  strong  passion.  He  has  little,  or  no,  sense 
of  humor,  never  makes  a  jocular  remark  and  seldom 
appreciates  one.  He  is  genial  and  extremely  sociable. 
Gambling  is  a  mania  with  him,  and  he  is  very  fond 
of  show.  He  is  improvident  to  the  extent  of  reck- 
lessness, and  will  spend  his  last  peso  on  a  cock-fight, 
for  a  feast,  or  in  the  purchase  of  cheap  trinkets  for 
his  wife. 

Whilst  the  Filipino  is  honest  in  the  main,  his  con- 
ception of  moral  obligations  is  not  of  the  keenest.  He 
rarely  steals,  but  he  may  borrow  without  any  thought 
of  return,  unless  demand  is  made  upon  him.  He  will 
secure  money  as  a  loan,  or  in  consideration  of  future 
service,  and,  although  he  never  repudiates  the  in- 


100  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

debtedness,  it  is  frequently  difficult  to  enforce  re- 
payment, or  the  performance  of  the  promised  work. 
His  sense  of  gratitude  is  rather  dull.  He  is  apt  to 
suspect  an  ulterior  motive  behind  a  concession,  or  a 
gift,  and  this  may  be  a  logical  outcome  of  his  experi- 
ence with  the  white  man. 

The  Filipino  compares  favorably  with  the  China- 
man, or  the  Hindu,  and  gives  greater  promise  of 
future  development  than  either.  He  is  more  tracta- 
ble than  the  former,  and  has  none  of  his  innate  aver- 
sion to  Western  civilization;  he  is  more  intelligent 
than  the  latter,  and  is  not  hampered  by  religious  preju- 
dices, nor  caste  restrictions.  Indeed,  there  is  no  East- 
ern people  that  presents  more  favorable  material  for 
conversion  to  Western  civilization  than  do  the  Chris- 
tian tribes  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

Whilst  the  foregoing  applies  in  general  to  the 
Christian  natives,  some  of  the  tribes  furnish  marked 
exceptions  in  certain  particulars  and  the  small  upper 
class,  the  genie  ilustrada,  have  developed  many  quali- 
ties that  are  at  variance  with  the  typical  Filipino 
character. 

THE    NON-CHRISTIAN    MALAYS. 

Of  the  non-Christian  Malays,  excepting  Moros, 
the  Igorots  are  by  far  the  most  numerous.  The  cen- 
sus enumeration  places  them  in  excess  of  183,000. 
They  are  distributed  over  eleven  of  the  northern 
provinces  of  Luzon  in  various  stages  of  development, 


J  , 

THE  NON-CHRISTIAN  MALAYS;.  ;  101 

ranging  from  the  wild  head-hunters  of  Bontoe  to  the 
semi-civilized  Tinguian  of  Abra.  They  are  most 
numerous  in  Lepanto-Bontoc,  Nueva  Vizcaya,  and 
Benguet,  where  they  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  popu- 
lations. They  inhabit  the  higher  valleys  and  moun- 
tain ranges.  In  general  they  are  physically  superior 
to  the  Filipinos  of  the  lowlands.  They  are  an  in- 
telligent, happy  people,  of  good  morals  and  indus- 
trious habits,  with  a  strong  vein  of  independence  in 
their  composition. 

The  Malays  never  effected  large  political  organiza- 
tions. The  point  is  illustrated  in  the  barangay  system 
of  the  early  Tagalogs.  The  political  unit  of  the  Igo- 
rots  is  the  barrio,  or  hamlet,  several  of  which  may  go 
to  make  up  a  township.  Under  normal  conditions  the 
town  across  the  valley  is  an  enemy  and  seeks  the 
heads  of  its  neighbors.  "I  have  stood,"  says  Doctor 
Barrows,  "in  a  single  Igorot  town  and  looked  across 
the  steep  hillsides  and  river  valleys  where  in  every 
direction  within  a  radius  of  six  miles  a  man's  life 
of  that  town  would  have  been  unsafe.  His  head 
would  unfailingly  have  been  taken  had  he  ventured 
unprotected  so  far  from  home."  This  applies  par- 
ticularly to  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Igorot  coun- 
try. Toward  the  west  coast  the  people  are  much 
more  nearly  civilized  and  have  abandoned  their  old- 
time  practice  of  head-hunting.  Here  the  central  gov- 
ernment is  recognized  and  respected  and,  although 
in  many  districts  the  ancient  petty  courts  are  still 


102  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

maintained,  appeals  from  their  decisions  are  fre- 
quently made  to  the  American  authorities. 
A  ^Every  Igorot  barrio  has  its  judicial  body  of  old 
men,  who  dispose  of  all  cases  from  petty  theft  to 
murder.  If  the  matter  is  one  affecting  the  entire 
town  a  composite  court  is  formed  of  members  of 
the  various  barrios  interested.  Most  penalties  take  the 
form  of  a  fine  payable  in  cattle,  or  other  property. 
Trial  by  ordeal  is  commonly  practiced.  The  podung, 
or  bloody  test,  consists  in  boring  holes  in  the  scalps 
of  the  suspect  and  his  accuser.  The  verdict  goes 
to  the  one  who  bleeds  the  least.  When  one  of  a  num- 
ber of  persons  is  believed  to  be  a  criminal,  each  of 
them  is  given  a  mouthful  of  dry  rice  to  chew.  After 
mastication  this  is  spat  out  upon  the  hands  of  the 
judges  and  he  whose  mass  exhibits  the  least  saliva 
is  deemed  convicted,  in  accordance  with  their  proverb, 
which  says,  "A  guilty  man  has  a  dry  mouth." 

The  Sun  is  the  great  god  of  the  Igorots,  and  the 
Moon  is  his  brother.  They  believe  in  a  number  of 
evil  spirits.  An  Igorot  maintains  that  personally  he 
is  sinless  and  can  do  no  wrong  unless  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  one  of  these  spirits,  which  enters  into  him  and 
subdues  his  will.  One  who  has  had  intimate  rela- 
tions with  them  says,  "the  conception  of  right  and 
wrong  is  a  quality  fully  developed  in  the  Igorot  mind 
throughout  all  conditions  of  life !  and  fully  in  accord 
with  the  present  civilized  conception  of  right  and 
wrong.  They  believe  in  virtue  in  both  male  and 


THE  NON-CHRISTIAN  MALAYS.  103 

female;  they  believe  in  honesty  and  faithfulness  in 
the  performance  of  any  task,  no  matter  how  arduous 
it  is  made  for  them  by  those  in  authority,  and  perform 
these  tasks  cheerfully." 

The  canao  is  a  ceremonial  dance  and  feast.  It  is 
the  occasion  for  the  consumption  of  a  great  deal  of 
meat  and  drink.  Horse,  carabao,  hog,  and  deer 
are  eaten,  and  dog  is  an  especial  delicacy.  It  is  a 
point  of  etiquette  with  the  Igorot  to  continue  eating 
as  long  as  a  fragment  of  the  viands  remains.  Bassi 
is  an  intoxicant  produced  from  rice  and  sugar-cane. 
It  is  freely  consumed  by  the  Igorots,  who  are  by  no 
means  so  abstemious  as  the  Filipino. 

Amongst  the  Igorots,  as  with  almost  all  wild,  or 
savage,  races,  the  women  perform  the  greater  share 
of  labor,  but  the  men  are  very  far  from  being  idle, 
and  it  is  possible  that  the  arrangement  had  its  origin 
as  a  defensive  measure.  Even  at  this  day,  amongst 
the  worst  head-hunters,  the  women  work  in  the  paddy 
fields  whilst  the  men  mount  guard  with  their  arms 
against  their  neighbors. 

Unlike  the  Negritos  they  are  a  stationary  people. 
A  village  will  move  only  for  serious  reasons,  and  then 
never  more  than  a  few  miles  from  its  old  site.  For 
the  Igorot  the  whole  world  is  peopled  with  evil  spirits, 
and  human  beings  eager  to  decapitate  him,  and  there- 
fore he  dreads  to  cross  his  communal  boundaries. 
This  of  course  does  not  apply  to  the  western  com- 
munities which  are  in  touch  with  the  civilization  of 


104  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  seacoast  provinces,  but  even  these  retain  their 
sedentary  tendencies. 

They  live  poorly  and  not  under  the  most  sanitary 
conditions,  but  their  wants  are  few,  and  they  are 
perfectly  contented.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  pau- 
perism amongst  them.  The  aged,  indigent,  and 
crippled  are  cheerfully  supported  by  the  community. 
The  case  is  reported  of  a  man  in  one  of  their  barrios 
who  has  been  dangerously  insane  for  nine  years.  He 
has  been  confined  in  a  hut  all  this  time  and  two  men 
of  the  community  have  been  detailed  each  week  to 
feed  him  and  keep  his  habitation  clean.  When  any 
person  dies  one-half  of  his  edible  possessions  and  of 
his  herds  and  flocks  is  eaten  up  by  the  community  to 
which  he  belonged.  During  the  feast  the  body  of  the 
deceased  is  tied  in  a  chair  in  his  house  that  he  may 
see  that  no  personal  enemy  partakes  of  his  bounty. 
The  burial  of  a  rich  man  may  thus  be  deferred  for 
months. 

THE  MOROS. 

The  word  "Moro,"  or  Moor,  in  its  original  sig- 
nification simply  meant  Muhammadan.  It  is  not  an 
ethnologic  term,  but  is  generally  used  at  present  as 
a  comprehensive  designation  for  the  several  Malayan 
tribes  of  the  southern  islands,  who  adhere  to  Islam. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  Samal  Laut,  those 
curious  gypsies  of  the  sea,  who  wandered  long  ago 
from  their  old  haunts  in  Johore  and  the  Straits  of 


THE  MOROS.  105 

Malacca  to  the  Sulu  Archipelago.  Great  numbers 
of  their  descendants,  named  Bajaus,  are  found  about 
those  islands  to-day  and  along  the  southern  coast  of 
Mindanao.  They  maintain  the  manner  of  life  of 
their  roving  ancestors.  Each  family  inhabits  a  boat 
and  a  fleet  of  half  a  dozen  or  so  comprises  a  com- 
munity. They  have  no  political  organization,  but 
recognize  temporarily  the  authority  of  the  data  off 
whose  shore  they  may  happen  to  be  lying  and  pay 
tribute  to  him  during  their  stay.  They  move  about 
as  inclination,  or  the  monsoon,  may  dictate,  and 
absolutely  make  their  home  upon  the  waters.  They 
traffic  in  the  products  of  the  sea  and  find  their  main 
subsistence  in  them.  They  barter  trepang,  edible 
seaweed,  and  sharks'  fins  with  the  Chinese  traders, 
for  tapioca  and  cloth. 

Slavery  is  general  among  the  Bajaus,  and  every 
man  of  a  community  is  required  to  work  one  or  two 
days  of  each  week  for  his  chief,  or  capitan  Bajau. 

Despite  their  wandering  lives  upon  the  water,  the 
Bajaus  never  consign  their  dead  to  the  sea,  but  bury 
them  upon  some  particular  island  which  has  been 
selected  as  the  family,  or  community,  cemetery.  ~No 
matter  how  far  away  they  may  be,  or  how  engaged, 
when  one  of  their  number  dies  they  will  carry  his 
body  to  the  customary  burying  ground.  Absolutely 
everything  that  the  Bajau  possessed  is  interred  with 
him.  Even  his  boat  is  broken  up  and  the  pieces 
placed  in  his  grave. 


106  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Samal  Moros  are  descended  from  the  same 
stock  as  the  Bajaus,  but  have  abandoned  the  life  upon 
the  water,  though  they  still  live  over  it,  their  villages 
being  built  over  the  sea,  facing  broad,  sandy  beaches. 
The  Samals  affect  to  despise  their  boat-dwelling  broth- 
ers, who  are  degenerates  in  the  matter  of  religion. 
Large  villages  of  Samals  are  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  Sulu  Archipelago.  They  are  the  dominant  peo- 
ple of  Zamboanga  peninsula,  and  form  the  bulk  of  the 
population  of  the  Tawi  Tawi  group.  Their  chief  oc- 
cupation everywhere  is  fishing,  with  which,  in  some 
localities,  they  combine  a  little  agriculture. 

The  Samals  were  the  dreaded  Malay  pirates  whose 
depredations  the  Spaniards  were  powerless  to  check 
until  gunboats  were  brought  to  bear  against  them.  Up 
till  within  sixty  years  ago  they  made  annual  raids 
upon  the  Visayan  Islands,  looting  tOAvns  and  carry- 
ing away  captives  to  slavery.  It  is  said  that  the  last 
such  expedition  dates  from  less  than  twenty-five  years 
ago. 

For  the  most  part  the  Moros  live  upon  the  coasts, 
but  there  is  a  great  tribe,  the  Malanao,  numbering 
upwards  of  95,000,  in  the  interior  of  Mindanao. 
Their  towns  are  thickly  clustered  about  the  district 
around  Lake  Lanao.  Another  numerous  tribe  is  the 
Maguindanao,  settled  chiefly  in  the  district  of  Cot- 
tabato,  whence  they  have  extended  to  the  Gulf  of 
Davao,  on  the  opposite  coast. 

The  Moros  are  prosperous  and  happy.     All  their 


THE  MOROS.  107 

needs,  or  possible  wants,  are  easily  supplied.  The  sea 
and  the  soil  yield  subsistence  with  very  little  effort 
and  beyond  a  full  stomach  and  a  few  simple  luxuries 
the  desires  of  the  Moro  do  not  extend;  nor  does  his 
environment  afford  any  scope  for  ambition,  or  energy. 
Since  the  exercise  of  his  fighting  proclivities  has  been 
curtailed  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  outlet  for 
his  activity. 

Almost  all  Moro  industries  are  of  the  domestic 
order.  Agriculture,  supplemented  by  fishing,  is  the 
mainstay  of  the  people.  They  raise  rice,  corn,  ca- 
moies,  or  sweet  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables  by  a 
very  simple,  but  apparently  satisfactory,  method. 
The  ground  is  broken  with  pointed  sticks  and,  aside 
from  sowing  and  weeding,  nothing  more  is  done  to  it. 

Boat  building  is  a  hereditary  occupation  with  the 
Moros  and  an  important  industry,  where  every  family 
owns  one  boat  at  least  and  often  several.  Every  man 
can  repair  a  boat,  and  most  of  them  are  able  to  make 
some  kind  of  craft.  Even  the  inland  Moro  passes 
a  great  part  of  his  time  upon  the  waters  of  the  lakes 
and  rivers. 

Another  industry  of  consequence  and  repute  is 
that  of  the  manufacture  of  weapons.  From  Chinese 
traders  are  obtained  the  iron  and  steel  which  are 
forged  into  Jcrisses,  bolos,  spears,  daggers,  and  knives. 
As  with  all  war-like  people,  the  smith  is  an  honored 
member  of  the  community.  Aside  from  construct- 
ing craft  and  fashioning  weapons,  the  Moros  show 


108  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

little  aptitude,  or  inclination,  for  mechanical  pur- 
suits. There  are  among  them  a  few  artisans  who 
work  metal  into  articles  of  ornament,  and  a  rude 
form  of  pottery  is  produced  without  the  use  of  a 
firing  kiln.  The  women  weave  a  serviceable  quality 
of  cloth,  but  they  know  little  about  spinning  and  are 
dependent  upon  the  Chinese  for  their  thread. 

The  Moros  live  in  the  ordinary  Malayan  type  of 
dwelling,  elevated  upon  piles  and  often  erected  near, 
or  over,  the  water.  The  timbers  are  fastened  with 
rattan,  and  the  roofs  and  walls  covered  with  palm 
leaves.  These  houses  answer  their  purpose  very 
well.  They  are  cool  and  waterproof  and  withstand 
the  frequent  earthquake  shocks.  The  Moros  are  not 
clean  in  their  surroundings  as  are  the  Filipinos, 
nor  do  they  seem  to  consider  domestic  comfort  to  the 
same  extent.  They  are  polygamists,  in  accordance 
with  Kuranic  license.  Wives  are  purchased,  the 
suitor  paying  to  the  family  of  the  bride  an  amount 
commensurate  with  his  position,  or  means.  Divorce 
may  be  effected  by  mutual  agreement,  or  a  man,  find- 
ing himself  unable  to  support  all  his  wives,  may  send 
one,  or  more,  back  to  their  families.  A  woman  thus 
returning  to  her  home  takes  all  her  personal  belong- 
ings and  whatever  she  may  have  received  from  her 
husband  during  her  wedded  life.  The  family  rela- 
tions are  closely  drawn.  Wives  receive  kindly  treat- 
ment and  are  consulted  in  family  matters.  Both 
parents  display  affection  toward  their  offspring.  The 


THE  MOROS.  109 

Muhammadan  law  of  abstinence  from  the  use  of  in- 
toxicants and  the  flesh  of  swine  is  observed,  but  in 
other  respects  the  Moros  are  far  from  being  faithful 
disciples  of  Islam.  The  habit  of  chewing  betel-nut 
is  confirmed  amongst  men,  women,  and  children. 
This  is  a  favorite  indulgence  with  the  Hindus,  and 
other  Asiatics,  and  doubtless  the  Malay  immigrants 
to  the  Philippines  brought  the  custom  with  them.  It 
does  not  appear  to  be  injurious,  but  on  the  contrary 
is  said  to  act  as  a  tonic-digestant  and  a  preservative  of 
the  teeth. 

The  social  organization  of  the  Moros  is  simple. 
There  are  two  main  political  divisions  of  the  people — 
freemen  and  slaves.  Slavery  existed  as  an  institu- 
tion among  them  prior  to  their  advent  to  the  Philip- 
pines. The  communal  unit,  ranging  from  perhaps  a 
dozen  in  the  case  of  the  Bajaus,  to  possibly  ten  thou- 
sand with  the  larger  tribes,  is  ruled  by  a  chief,  vari- 
ously termed  sultan,  raja,  and  dato.  There  is  no 
code  of  laws,  but  custom  and  precedent  are  zealously 
adhered  to.  The  office  of  dato  is  generally  heredi- 
tary and  the  authority  pertaining  to  it  is  always  recog- 
nized by  the  clan.  The  chief  usually  associates  with 
himself  a  number  of  men  of  noble  blood,  or  wealth, 
who  form  a  sort  of  court  and  take  an  active  part  in 
the  regulation  of  the  community.  All  datos  maintain 
a  retinue  of  fighting-men,  who  accompany  them  every- 
where, display  being  considered  quite  as  important 
as  protection.  The  dato  is  absolute  in  authority, 


110  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

but  not  often  despotic.  All  land  of  the  community  is 
vested  in  him,  but  he  rarely  disturbs  established  oc- 
cupation. He  declares  war  and  makes  peace,  and 
presides  at  the  administration  of  justice.  A  difficulty 
involving  two  or  more  villages  is  usually  adjusted 
by  their  respective  headmen,  but  the  decision  is  sub- 
ject to  the  vetoes  of  the  chieftains  concerned. 

Crimes  are  generally  punished  by  fine,  or  sub- 
jection to  slavery.  An  adulterous  woman  is  mulcted 
in  a  heavy  fine,  which  is  paid  by  herself,  or  her  fam- 
ily, to  the  injured  husband,  and  is  shared  by  him 
with  the  dato  and  headmen  composing  the  court.  In 
default  of  payment  the  woman  is  adjudged  a  slave 
and  her  husband  has  the  right  to  sell  her.  A  man 
convicted  of  adultery  is  sentenced  to  a  fine  twice  as 
great  as  that  imposed  upon  a  woman  and  it  is  dis- 
posed of  in  the  same  manner,  whilst  the  culprit  is 
subject  to  the  same  alternative  in  case  of  failure  to 
pay.  A  husband  discovering  his  wife  in  the  act  of 
adultery  is  justified  by  custom  in  killing  her  and  her 
paramour.  Incest  and  carnal  assault  upon  a  young 
girl  are  punishable  by  death. 

A  convicted  thief  must  pay  to  the  victim  twice  the 
amount  of  the  theft  in  addition  to  a  fine,  which  goes 
to  the  headmen.  The  alternative  penalty  is  enslave- 
ment, but  the  culprit  may  substitute  one  of  his  off- 
spring, who  is  thus  consigned  to  bondage  for  life,  a 
striking  illustration  of  visiting  the  sins  of  the  fathers 
upon  their  children.  Murder  is  generally  punish- 


THE  MOROS.  Ill 

able  by  a  heavy  fine,  subject  to  the  usual  division 
with  the  court.  Confinement  is  hardly  ever  resorted 
to  as  a  penalty,  the  Moro  considering  it  an  incon- 
venient and  uneconomical  method  of  punishment. 

Slavery  with  the  Moros  takes  a  mild  form.  The 
slave  may  be  a  captive  from  a  neighboring  tribe,  or  a 
wild  man  of  the  woods,  but  more  often  than  the  lat- 
ter he  is  of  pure  Malay  blood.  Such  slaves,  and 
those  condemned  to  the  condition  by  the  court,  as  well 
as  those  held  as  security  for  debt,  may  be  bought 
and  sold.  Very  often  slavery  is  merely  a  temporary 
service  in  consideration  of  some  benefit  received. 

Slaves  usually  live  in  the  same  house  with  their 
master  and  practically  under  the  same  conditions,  eat- 
ing at  his  table  and,  with  the  exception  of  liberty,  far- 
ing in  all  respects  as  well  as  himself.  They  are  not 
compelled  to  onerous  labor  in  a  country  where  no  hard 
work  is  done,  and  the  female  slave,  in  particular,  is 
often  treated  with  the  greatest  consideration.  Under 
such  circumstances  the  condition  of  the  bondsman  is 
often  a  great  improvement  over  the  life  he  has  been 
accustomed  to. 

In  general,  the  Moros  are  illiterate,  superstitious, 
and  non-progressive.  Some  few  have  learned  to  read 
and  write  from  their  priests,  or  pandiias,  but  learning 
is  not  esteemed  nor  encouraged  amongst  them.  They 
use  the  Arabic  alphabet  in  the  expression  of  a  Malay 
dialect.  The  Kuran  is  an  object  of  abstract  venera- 
tion. They  know  very  little  of  its  doctrine  and  are 


112  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

only  slightly  submissive  to  the  influence  of  the  priests. 
Nevertheless,  their  religion,  such  as  it  is,  and  their 
jealous  regard  for  their  customs  will  prove  a  serious 
bar  to  civilizing  them.  The  Reverend  Pio  Pi,  supe- 
rior of  the  Jesuit  Order  in  the  Philippines,  writing 
in  1901,  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  Moros  were 
influenced  in  their  opposition  to  reduction  and  cul- 
ture by  (1)  their  character;  (2)  their  history,  or  tra- 
dition; (3)  their  fanaticism;  (4)  their  interests. 
(Certainly  a  substantial  basis  of  opposition  to  sub- 
vert.) The  reverend  father  characterizes  them  as 
haughty,  independent,  and  domineering,  accustomed 
to  look  upon  all  other  natives  with  disdain.  All  of 
which  is  unquestionably  true,  but  Avhen  it  comes  to 
the  rest  of  the  arraignment,  which  is  as  severe  as 
language  can  make  it,  some  allowance  must  be  had 
for  a  would-be  proselyter  dealing  with  a  people  equally 
fanatical  with  his  own,  and  equally  convinced  of  the 
righteousness  of  their  religious  belief. 

THE    GROWTH    OF    POPULATION. 

The  peoples  of  the  Philippines  have  multiplied 
rapidly  during  the  past  hundred  years  or  so.  Accord- 
ing to  the  recent  census,  the  total  population  of  the 
Philippine  Archipelago  on  March  2,  1903,  was  7,635,- 
426.  Of  this  number  6,987,686  enjoyed  a  consider- 
able degree  of  civilization,  while  the  remainder, 
647,740,  consisted  of  wild  people.  The  civilized  peo- 
ple, with  the  exception  of  those  of  foreign  birth, 


THE  GROWTH  OF  POPULATION.  113 

were  practically  all  adherents  of  the  (Roman)  Catho- 
lic Church,  while  of  the  peoples  here  classified  as  wild 
a  large  proportion,  probably  more  than  two-fifths,  were 
Muhammadans  in  religion  and  were  well  known  in 
the  islands  as  Moros.  The  remaining  three-fifths 
belonged  to  various  tribes,  differing  from  one  another 
in  degrees  of  barbarism.  At  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century  the  subjection  of  the  islands  by  the 
Spaniards  was  almost  as  complete  as  at  any  later  time. 
As  the  conquest  extended,  the  population  was  par- 
celled out  amongst  soldiers,  and  others  under  a  sys- 
tem of  encomiendas,  which  prevailed  from  the  time 
of  Legaspi,  the  first  governor,  until  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  The  system,  as  practiced  in 
the  American  possessions  of  Spain,  practically  em- 
braced slavery,  but  its  extension  to  the  Philippines 
was  accompanied  by  several  conditions  and  restric- 
tions in  the  interests  of  the  natives,  which,  however, 
were  more  or  less  disregarded.  The  encomienda  was 
a  royal  grant  of  a  certain  portion  of  the  land  with  its 
native  population,  and  included  the  right  to  collect 
from  these  the  tribute  and  to  enjoy  the  fruit  of  their 
labor.  Soldiers,  as  they  retired  from  service,  had 
appropriated  to  them  certain  communities  for  their 
special  benefit  and  other  villages  were  reserved  for 
the  King.  Officials  and  favored  civilians  became 
grantees  in  the  same  manner.  The  system  naturally 
had  the  effect  of  extending  the  settlement  of  the 
country;  indeed,  it  became  the  chief  factor  in  that 


114  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

movement  and  eventually  the  whole  population,  aside 
from  the  wild  Negritos  and  Igorots,  and  the  uncon- 
querable Moros,  was  included  in  encomiendas.  Each 
family  represented  one  tributo  and  the  Spaniards 
reckoned  four  souls  to  a  family. 

The  Relation  de  Encomiendas,  submitted  to  the 
King  in  1591,  reported  a  total  of  166,903  tributes, 
which  would  give,  in  approximate  figures,  a  popula- 
tion of  667,612  for  the  territory  under  military  con- 
trol. In  all  probability  the  total  population  of  the 
islands  at  that  time,  including  the  country  of  the 
Muhammadan  Malays,  did  not  much  exceed  800,000 

During  the  first  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  their 
occupation,  the  Spaniards,  actuated  by  a  policy  of  pro- 
tection toward  their  other  colonies  and  the  merchants 
at  home  trading  with  them,  prohibited  all  trade  of  the 
Philippines  with  foreign  countries.  Thus  not  only 
was  commercial  development  checked,  but  actual  ret- 
rogression was  effected  by  the  discontinuance  of  the 
trade  which  had  existed  before  the  Spanish  conquest. 
Under  such  conditions  large  increase  of  population 
was  not  to  be  expected,  and  we  learn  from  the  account 
of  Father  San  Antonio,  the  Franciscan  historian, 
that  in  1735  the  islands  contained  but  837,182  souls. 
In  1800  Zuniga  estimates  the  population  at  1,561,251. 

In  the  nineteenth  century  greatly  improved  eco- 
nomic conditions,  due  to  the  opening  of  the  country  to 
the  commerce  of  the  world,  had  a  marked  effect  in 
the  multiplication  of  the  people.  In  1845  Fray 


THE  GROWTH  OF  POPULATION:  115 

Manuel  Buzeta  published  a  notable  work  entitled  a 
"Geographical,  Statistical,  and  Historical  Dictionary 
of  the  Philippines,"  from  which  the  following  is  ex- 
tracted : 

"We  have  already  seen  how,  in  the  last  years  of 
the  past  century  and  the  first  of  this  century,  the 
political  conditions  of  the  Philippines  presented  in 
twenty-five  provinces,  1,522,221  souls  and  312,251 
tributes,  and  according  to  the  state  of  the  population 
published  by  order  of  his  excellency,  the  ayuntamienio 
of  Manila,  this  population  was  increasing,  so  that  in 
1808  the  number  of  souls  was  1,741,034;  in  1812 
to  1,933,331;  in  1815  to  2,052,992;  in  1817  to 
2,062,805;  in  1818  to  2,106,836. 

"Various  data  which  we  have,  and  for  whose  exact- 
ness we  cannot  vouch,  give  in  1829  2,593,287,  and  in 
1833  a  population  of  3,153,290.  The  Guia  de  Manila 
of  the  year  1840  presents  the  population  as  3,209,077 
and  compared  with  the  population  that  we  have  seen 
was  reported  in  1735,  it  would  appear  that  the  837,- 
182  souls  of  the  earlier  epoch  were  to  those  of  1840 
as  1  to  3,  a  proportion  which  represents  a  gain  of  283 
per  cent,  in  one  hundred  and  five  years.  In  the  five 
years  since,  the  population  of  the  Philippines  had 
been  increasing  at  the  rate  of  1.7  per  cent,  per  year, 
so  that  in  1845  the  number  of  souls  was  3,488,258." 

In  the  fifty-eight  years  that  have  elapsed  since 
Buzeta's  enumeration  the  population  of  the  islands 
has  more  than  doubled.  No  doubt,  had  as  complete 


116  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

a  census  as  that  of  1903  been  taken  in  1897,  the 
figures  would  have  shown  a  larger  population  than 
at  present.  Since  the  latter  year  the  people  have  been 
subject  to  the  effects  of  war,  destruction  of  industry, 
loss  of  cattle  and  homes,  and,  perhaps  most  serious 
of  all  influences,  dreadful  visitations  of  smallpox 
and  cholera.  Doctor  Barrows  says  that  "the  con- 
clusion to  be  arived  at  is  that  the  Christian  Philippine 
population  shows  a  power  of  multiplying  scarcely 
exceeded  by  any  race  of  people.  The  hope  of  building 
up  here  in  the  course  of  a  few  generations  a  people 
equal  in  numbers  and  national  resources  to  the  Japan- 
ese at  the  present  time,  does  not  seem  illusory.  Given 
a  prolific  stock,  expanding  prosperity  and  commerce, 
and  favorable  political  conditions,  population,  as 
proved  by  a  hundred  historical  instances,  can  go  up 
by  leaps  and  bounds.  I  believe  that  all  these  con- 
ditions together  may  be  realized  here  in  the  Philip- 
pines. A  great  deal  depends  also  upon  the  mental 
attitude  of  the  people.  If  it  be  hopeful,  aspiring, 
cheered  by  increasing  gains  and  opportunities — then 
is  there  added  a  factor  of  the  utmost  consideration. 
Population  has  no  deadlier  enemy  than  despondency 
and  melancholia.  There  is  a  deep  wisdom  in  the  in- 
tentions of  the  American  Government  to  meet  more 
than  half  way  the  eager  ambitions  of  this  race." 


EARLY  HISTORY. 


III. 

EARLY  HISTORY. 

The  Discovery  of  the  Philippines — The  Inception  of  Spanish 
Dominion — The  Chinese  Invasion — Internal  Dissensions 
— Growth  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Power — Conflict  of  Church 
and  State — The  Important  Services  of  the  Friars — At- 
tempts to  Christianize  Japan — Dutch  Attacks  Upon  the 
Colony — Influx  of  Chinese  Traders — The  Spaniards  Come 
into  Contact  With  the  Moros — The  British  Take  Manila 
— Uprisings  of  the  Natives. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  two 
great  maritime  powers,  Spain  and  Portugal,  were 
at  the  height  of  their  rivalry  and  in  the  midst  of  their 
extensive  discoveries.  In  the  hope  of  settling  the 
frequent  disputes  as  to  their  respective  trading  rights 
Pope  Alexander  the  Sixth  had  issued  a  papal  bull,  in 
1494,  dividing  the  world  into  two  hemispheres,  prac- 
tically the  same  as  those  recognized  to-day,  and  giving 
to  the  Spaniards  all  heathen  lands  in  the  western  half 
and  to  the  Portuguese  all  those  in  the  eastern. 

The  path  of  Portuguese  exploration  had  been  east- 
ward, and  they  had  reached  Asia  by  way  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  Following 
the  discovery  of  America  the  eyes  of  all  the  world's 
geographers  and  navigators  were  turned  toward  the 
west.  When  Balboa  sighted  the  Pacific  a  fresh  in- 
centive was  given  to  adventure,  and  ardent  spirits  of 

(119) 


120  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

both  nations  became  eager  to  follow  the  course  of 
the  setting  sun  until  they  should  reach  the  vast  ocean 
which  lay  beyond  the  American  continent.  Chance 
favored  the  Spaniards,  and  strangely  enough  they 
owed  their  success  in  this  instance  to  a  Portuguese 
as  they  had  formerly  owed  it  to  a  native  of  Genoa. 
In  truth,  the  Spanish  discoveries  were  mainly  due 
to  religious  zeal  and  greed  for  gold.  Their  native 
sailors  were  seldom  actuated  by  sheer  love  of  ad- 
venture, as  were  many  of  the  English  sea  captains  of 
the  same  age,  or  by  a  desire  for  scientific  investiga- 
tion, such  as  moved  Magellan  and  Columbus. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Hernando  de  Maghallanes  was  a  Portuguese  noble, 
a  practical  mathematician  and  navigator,  and  a  man 
of  extraordinary  parts.  As  a  soldier  and  a  sailor  he 
had  distinguished  himself  in  a  wide  field.  He  served 
under  the  famous  Albuquerque  in  his  expedition  to 
Asia,  and  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Malacca.  Later  he 
accompanied  the  expedition  to  the  Moluccas,  which 
discovered  Ternate  and  other  islands.  On  this  oc- 
casion he  gained  information  which  confirmed  his 
belief  that  a  passage  existed  between  the  two  great 
oceans  of  the  globe,  and  he  returned  to  Europe  pos- 
sessed with  a  determination  to  seek  it.  Whilst  pur- 
suing investigations  tending  toward  the  execution  of 
his  project,  Magellan,  to  give  him  the  familiar  form 
of  his  name,  was  ordered  to  the  wars  in  Africa, 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES.  121 

where  he  received  a  wound  which  rendered  him  lame 
for  life.  Upon  his  return  he  fell  a  victim  to  one 
of  the  court  intrigues  so  common  at  the  tiihe.  Jeal- 
ous of  his  achievements  and  favor  with  the  King, 
certain  nobles  made  false  accusations  against  him, 
which  gained  the  credence  of  King  Emmanuel.  Dis- 
gusted at  the  perfidy  of  his  companions  in  arms 
and  the  ingratitude  of  his  royal  master,  Magellan  re- 
nounced his  nationality  and  offered  his  services  to  the 
Spanish  monarch.  He  was  graciously  received  by 
King  Charles  the  First  and  immediately  became  a 
naturalized  Spaniard.  Magellan  was  eager  to  essay 
the  discovery  of  a  western  passage  to  the  Orient,  and 
the  King  of  Spain  readily  granted  the  necessary  per- 
mission, notwithstanding  numerous  attempts  in  the 
same  direction  had  failed.  An  agreement  was  signed, 
by  the  terms  of  which  the  King  undertook  to  defray 
the  expense  of  fitting  out  five  ships  with  their  comple- 
ment of  men-at-arms  and  sailors.  Magellan  on  his 
part  agreed  to  devote  his  energies  to  the  discovery  of 
spice  islands  within  the  limits  of  the  papal  grant. 

On  the  10th  of  August,  1519,  the  fleet  sailed  out  of 
the  harbor  of  San  Lucar  de  Barrameda.  On  the  13th 
of  December  they  reached  Rio  Janeiro  and  continued 
their  voyage  along  the  coast  in  search  of  the  passage 
to  the  Pacific.  Soon  the  hardships  incident  to  such 
an  undertaking  began  to  breed  discontent  among  the 
men  and  dissensions  arose  between  the  captains.  Two 
of  the  latter  broke  into  open  mutiny.  They  wrere  put 


122  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

to  death  by  the  orders  of  the  commander,  and  dis- 
cipline  was   restored.     On   the   26th   of   November, 

1520,  the  expedition  had  rounded  Cape  Horn   and 
found  itself  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.     The  fleet,  now 
reduced  to  three  sails,  shipwreck  and  desertion  ac- 
counting for  the  others,  cheerfully  headed  across  the 
broad  expanse  of  ocean  and,  on  the  16th  of  March, 

1521,  arrived  at  the  island  of  Limasagua,  just  off 
the    south   end    of    Leyte.     Magellan    continued    to 
Cebu,  where  he  made  a  treaty  with  the  Chief,  and 
ratified  it  by  the  ancient  Blood  Compact  of  the  Ma- 
lays.    A  few  days  afterwards  Magellan  accompanied 
a  war  expedition  of  his  new  ally  to  the  Island  of  Mac- 
tan  and  in  the  affray  that  followed  he  was  wounded, 
probably  by  a  poisoned  arrow,  and  died  on  the  27th 
of  April,   1521.     Thus  ended,  in  a  petty  skirmish 
with  savages,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  lives  of  the 
age. 

On  the  6th  of  September,  1522,  Juan  Sebastian 
Elcano,  in  command  of  the  "Victoria,"  representing 
all  that  remained  of  Magellan's  expedition,  cast 
anchor  in  the  port  from  which  he  had  started  three 
years  before.  In  returning  from  the  Philippines,  El- 
cano had  reached  Spain  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  thus  circumnavigating  the  earth  for  the  first 
time.  In  token  of  the  achievement  his  family  arms, 
created  by  royal  patent,  consist  of  a  globe  with  the 
motto :  Primus  circundedit  me.  Two  more  expedi- 
tions went  to  the  East  in  search  of  spice  islands  dur- 


INCEPTION  OF  SPANISH  DOMINION.  123 

ing  the  reign  of  King  Charles,  but  they  accomplished 
little  beyond  increasing  the  rancour  of  the  Portu- 
guese, who  complained,  not  without  cause,  that  the 
Spaniards  were  encroaching  upon  their  territory. 
King  Philip  of  Spain  was  a  man  of  strong  religious 
convictions  and  proselyting  tendencies.  He  became 
possessed  of  an  ambition  to  subdue  and  Christianize 
the  Philippines  and  ordered  an  expedition  to  be  pre- 
pared in  Mexico  with  that  object.  In  accordance  with 
the  royal  instructions  the  Governor  of  Mexico  fitted 
up  five  ships  and  manned  them  with  four  hundred 
soldiers  and  sailors.  The  command  of  the  expedition 
was  given  to  Miguel  Lopez  de  Legaspi,  a  Spaniard 
of  noble  birth  and  a  man  of  wide  experience,  and  to 
him  was  delegated  the  task  of  representing  the  King 
in  such  territory  as  might  be  occupied  by  the  force. 
Under  Legaspi,  but  with  a  certain  degree  of  inde- 
pendence in  his  particular  field,  was  Andres  de  Ur- 
daneta,  an  Austin  priest,  and  five  friars  of  his  order. 
To  these  missionaries  was  committed  the  spiritual 
care  of  all  heathens  who  might  be  brought  into  sub- 
jection by  the  expedition.  This  division  of  authority 
foreshadowed  the  never-ending  conflict  between  the 
civil  and  clerical  functionaries  in  the  Philippines  dur- 
ing the  Spanish  regime. 

THE    INCEPTION    OF    SPANISH    DOMINION. 

The  expedition  left  Navidad  in  Mexico  on  the  21st 
of  November,  1564,  and  in  the  following  year,  on  the 


124  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

27th  of  April,  the  anniversary  of  Magellan's  death, 
landed  at  Cebu.  This,  and  some  of  the  neighboring 
islands,  were  subdued  and  pacified  with  comparative 
ease  by  the  handful  of  Spaniards. 

In  1570,  Legaspi,  having  received  reinforcements, 
despatched  his  grandson,  Juan  Salcedo,  to  the  Island 
of  Luzon,  which  had  not  up  to  this  time  been  invaded 
by  the  Spaniards.  Salcedo  probably  landed  at  some 
point  in  the  Bay  of  Manila  without  opposition.  He 
was  well  received  by  the  local  chiefs,  Raja  Lakan 
Dola  of  Tondo,  and  his  nephew,  the  Raja  Soliman 
of  Maynila,  as  it  was  then-  called.  These  chieftains 
appear  to  have  surrendered  their  independence  with- 
out resistance  and  a  treaty  was  entered  into  with 
them.  Salcedo  then  proceeded  to  the  district  of 
Lake  Bombon,  one  of  the  most  populous  in  the  island, 
reducing  the  tribes  in  his  path.  He  subdued  the 
province  of  Batangas  and  returned  to  Manila. 

The  ease  with  which  a  few  hundred  Spaniards  were 
able  to  conquer  these  islands  may  excite  surprise, 
but  a  sufficient  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  the  natives  had  no  political  organization 
more  extensive  than  that  of  the  ancient  clans  of  Scot- 
land and  no  confederation  at  all  resembling,  for  in- 
stance, that  of  the  Maharatas  in  Hindustan,  or  that 
of  the  North  American  Indians.  The  greatest  num- 
ber of  fighting  men  any  one  chief  could  oppose  to  the 
invaders  was  probably  less  than  one  thousand,  and  the 
idea  of  combining  for  mutual  defense  does  not  seem 


INCEPTION  OF  SPANISH  DOMINION.  125 

to  have  been  entertained.  Indeed,  the  Spaniards 
never  experienced  any  serious  opposition,  or  hard 
fighting,  in  their  acquisition,  or  possession,  of  the 
Philippines,  unless  it  was  in  contests  with  foreign 
enemies,  until  the  Tagalog  Kebellion  of  1896.  Learn- 
ing of  the  success  of  his  forces  in  Luzon,  Legaspi 
repaired  to  the  island  and  declared  Manila  the  capital 
of  the  Colony.  A  fort  commanding  the  Pasig  was 
constructed,  a  church  was  built,  and  houses  erected 
for  the  Spaniards. 

In  August,  1571,  Legaspi,  the  first  Governor-Gen- 
eral of  the  Philippines,  died  and  was  succeeded  by 
Guido  de  Lavezares.  Legaspi's  life  had  been  a  very 
useful  one  to  his  country,  and  the  speedy  pacification 
of  the  Philippines  was  doubtless  due  in  great  measure 
to  his  wisdom  and  humanity. 

The  process  of  subjugating  Luzon  proceeded  rap- 
idly under  Salcedo  and  Martin  de  Goiti,  the  Maestre 
de  Campo.  On  more  than  one  occasion  they  were  ac- 
companied in  their  expeditions  by  the  Rajas  of  Tondo 
and  Manila  with  their  armed  followers.  As  a  rule, 
conquered  territory  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  native 
caciques  to  govern  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain. 
The  Negritos  invariably  refused  submission,  simply 
retiring  into  the  mountain  fastnesses  before  the  in- 
vaders and  retaining  the  independence  which  they 
have  to-day. 

Shortly  after  Legaspi's  occupation  of  Cebu  the  Por- 
tuguese made  a  weak  effort  to  wrest  the  possession 


126  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

from  him,  but  from  that  time  the  Spaniards  were 
not  disturbed  by  foreign  interference  until  1574, 
when  a  formidable  invasion  by  Chinese  occurred. 

THE    CHINESE    INVASION. 

Li  Ma  Hung  was  the  commander  of  a  powerful 
band  of  corsairs  who  had  for  years  infested  the  China 
Sea  and  plundered  the  coast  towns  of  the  Empire. 
From  Chinese  traders  he  learned  of  the  easy  conquest 
of  Luzon  by  a  few  hundred  white  men  and  conceived 
the  idea  of  displacing  them  himself.  In  November, 
1574,  Li  Ma  Hung  appeared  in  the  Bay  of  Manila 
with  a  fleet  of  sixty  well-equipped  war  junks,  having 
on  board  four  thousand  fighting  men  and  sailors.  A 
portion  of  this  force  was  landed  after  several  of  the 
vessels  had  been  destroyed  by  a  gale.  The  Spaniards 
appear  to  have  been  surprised,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  Chinese  were  within  the  confines  of  the  city  that 
any  resistance  was  offered  to  them.  The  defenders 
took  refuge  in  the  fort,  which  would  probably  have 
been  carried  by  assault  but  for  the  opportune  arrival 
of  a  small  body  of  fresh  troops  before  whom  the  Chi- 
nese fled  under  the  impression  that  they  were  the  van- 
guard of  an  army.  Two  days  later  the  Chinese  re- 
newed the  attack,  but  in  the  meanwhile  Salcedo  had 
arrived  at  Manila  with  reinforcements  and  the  charge 
of  the  defense  was  committed  to  him. 

The  Chinese  landed  fifteen  hundred  picked  men, 
who  proceeded  to  burn  the  city  before  storming  the 


THE  CHINESE  INVASION.  127 

fort.  The  latter  was  no  more  than  a  stockade 
strengthened  with  a  few  culverins.  The  Chinese  as- 
saulted furiously  under  cover  of  a  shower  of  hand 
grenades  and  at  length  broke  into  the  enclosure. 
Here  the  most  desperate  hand-to-hand  fighting  oc- 
curred with  the  result  in  the  balance  for  a  time. 
Eventually  the  Chinese  were  repulsed  with  great 
slaughter.  Salcedo  followed  them  up  in  their  retreat 
and  inflicted  heavy  loss  upon  them. 

Li  Ma  Hung  now  abandoned  the  attempt  to  take 
Manila,  but  determined  to  make  a  settlement  else- 
where. He  sailed  northward  along  the  coast  till  he 
arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Agno,  up  which  for  a 
short  distance  he  took  his  vessel  and  debarked.  The 
natives  offered  no  opposition,  and  the  Chinese,  ex- 
pecting to  be  left  in  peace  by  the  Spaniards,  erected 
houses  and  a  pagoda. 

For  some  months  the  invaders  were  undisturbed, 
but  at  length  Salcedo,  having  collected  a  force  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  Spanish  men-at-arms  and  six- 
teen hundred  well-armed  natives,  with  artillery,  came 
upon  the  Chinese  settlement  and  laid  siege  to  it.  For 
some  time  Li  Ma  Hung  held  out,  but  realizing  the 
hopelessness  of  his  situation,  took  advantage  of  an  op- 
portunity to  slip  out  of  the  river  with  his  fleet.  This 
manoeuvre  necessitated  his  leaving  the  major  part  of 
his  troops  behind,  and  these,  having  no  further  in- 
centive for  fight,  fled  to  the  mountains.  It  is  gener- 
ally believed  that  from  these  refugees  are  descended 


128  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

in  large  part  the  numerous  Chino-Igorots  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Pangasinan. 

INTEKNAL    DISSENSIONS. 

Almost  with  the  inception  of  the  orderly  adminis- 
tration of  the  colony  began  the  internal  dissensions 
which  have  always  characterized  the  Spanish  rule  of 
the  Philippines.  The  Governor-General,  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  the  religious  Orders,  perpetually  con- 
tended with  one  another  and  the  last  among  them- 
selves. Questions  of  respective  authority  were  con- 
stantly in  dispute  between  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
officers,  often  culminating  in  disgraceful  scenes  and 
acts.  The  jealous  antagonism  of  the  friars  of  one 
Order  toward  those  of  another  retarded  the  work  of  all 
and,  what  was  worse,  not  infrequently  destroyed  their 
influence  with  the  natives.  Add  to  this  the  vacillat- 
ing and  ill-advised  policy  of  the  Spanish  Government 
with  regard  to  the  Philippines  and  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  imagine  a  condition  of  affairs  less  conducive 
to  the  generation  and  growth  of  political  and  com- 
mercial prosperity  in  a  newly-acquired  country. 

The  Spanish  colony  of  Mexico  wras  governed  by  an 
excellent  code  of  laws,  termed  the  Leyes  de  Indias. 
These  were  applied  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  had 
they  been  observed,  conditions  must  have  been  very 
different.  The  entire  system  of  justice  was  cumber- 
some and  ill-adapted  to  the  conditions,  and,  indeed, 
it  remained  so  to  the  last.  Corruption  entered  into 


ECCLESIASTICAL  POWER.  129 

every  branch  of  the  government  from  an  early  date, 
and,  although  the  home  authorities  devised  measures 
to  prevent  the  exploitation  of  the  islands  by  adven- 
turers, they  were  frequently  avoided  and  little  check 
was  placed  upon  the  dishonesty  of  officials.  These 
were  not  the  shortcomings  and  failures  of  a  govern- 
ment contending  with  the  difficulties  of  an  experi- 
mental problem,  but  the  natural  results  of  the  system 
which  obtained  during  the  entire  tenure  of  the  islands 
by  Spain. 

Civilians  and  missionaries  consulted  their  own  in- 
terests regardless  of  the  rights  of  the  natives,  or  of 
the  prohibitions  of  law  and  royal  writs.  The  Spanish 
alcaldes  and  encomenderos  maltreated  the  natives  at 
their  pleasure  and  extorted  from  them  the  fruits  of 
their  labor. 

Slavery  was  practiced  by  all  classes  of  Spaniards, 
and  a  royal  decree  prohibiting  it  was  opposed  by  the 
governor.  These  and  other  abuses  led  to  frequent 
uprisings,  so  that  twenty  years  after  the  death  of 
Legaspi  the  islands  were  in  a  less  pacific  state  than 
that  in  which  he  left  them. 

GROWTH  OF  THE   ECCLESIASTICAL  POWER. 

Perhaps  the  chief  weakness  in  the  Spanish  rule 
of  the  Philippines  lay  in  the  undue  deference  and 
consideration  paid  to  the  friars  and  their  interests  by 
the  Spanish  Government.  Valuable  concessions  were 
constantly  made  to  them;  their  power  in  the  islands 


130  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

was  ever  on  the  increase  and  always  had  the  support 
of  the  national  government;  they  were  permitted  to 
interfere  with  increasing  influence  in  state  affairs 
until  the  tenure  of  office  of  Governors-General  and 
other  officials  depended  upon  their  good-will;  their 
grievances  met  with  ready  redress  at  Madrid,  and 
complaints  against  them  seldom  received  considera- 
tion. 

Members  of  the  Augustin  Order,  who  came  with 
Legaspi's  expedition,  were  the  first  friars  in  the 
Philippines,  and  they  strove  hard  to  prevent  the  in- 
coming of  other  Orders.  However,  the  Franciscans, 
Jesuits,  Dominicans,  and,  last  of  all,  the  Kecoletos 
succeeded,  with  more  or  less  difficulty,  in  entering 
the  country,  each  Order  in  turn  being  opposed  by  the 
members  of  others  which  already  had  representation 
in  the  islands.  It  was  sought  to  minimize  their  dis- 
sensions by  dividing  the  territory  between  them,  but 
quarrels  were  nevertheless  frequent. 

The  friars  were  vowed  to  poverty  and  to  monastic 
life.  From  the  latter  condition  the  Pope  exempted 
them  of  necessity,  but  only  temporarily,  and  until 
secular  clergy  could  be  provided  to  take  their  places 
in  the  native  communities.  They  invariably  arrived 
poor,  and  the  allowance  for  their  maintenance  was 
no  more  than  sufficient  to  keep  them  in  ordinary  com- 
fort, but  the  Orders  became  the  recipients  of  dona- 
tions from  devotees  and  received  large  bequests,  so 
that  in  a  short  while  they  had  become  rich  landed 


ECCLESIASTICAL  POWER.  131 

proprietors.  In  1601,  the  wealth  of  the  friars  hav- 
ing become  notorious,  the  King  commissioned  the 
Auditor  to  make  a  report  on  their  property.  The 
friars,  however,  refused  to  give  the  Auditor  any  in- 
formation, and  the  Archbishop  threatened  to  excom- 
municate him  unless  he  ceased  the  investigation.  As 
usual  with  all  movements  that  had  the  disapproval  of 
the  ecclesiastics,  the  matter  was  dropped. 

In  1653  the  friars  successfully  combatted  the  order 
of  the  Pope  to  subject  them  to  the  authority  of  the 
bishops.  They  maintained  that  they  were  amenable 
to  no  control  except  by  the  superiors  of  their  respec- 
tive Orders.  The  point  was  never  settled,  and  was 
the  cause  of  numerous  disputes  and  much  litigation. 
The  differences  between  the  various  Orders  seldom 
prevented  them  from  opposing  a  solid  front  to  any- 
thing looking  like  an  invasion  of  their  general  inter- 
ests. 

Royal  decrees  were  heeded  as  little  as  the  mandates 
of  the  local  authorities.  In  response  to  repeated 
complaints  the  King  ordered  the  friars  to  cease  from 
persuading  dying  men  to  will  their  property  to  the 
clergy ;  from  obliging  women  to  enter  domestic  ser- 
vice in  their  houses  under  the  pretext  of  learning 
Christian  doctrine;  from  charging  the  natives  fees 
for  the  administration  of  the  sacrament ;  and  from 
other  well-known  abuses.  Neither  then  nor  at  any 
later  time  was  there  a  perceptible  decrease  in  these 
practices. 


132  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  constant  conflicts  between  the  representatives 
of  Church  and  State  were  a  perpetual  impediment  to 
the  administration  of  government,  and,  indeed,  at 
times  plunged  it  into  a  condition  bordering  upon  an- 
archy. It  was  impossible  for  a  viceroy  to  perform 
his  duties  fearlessly  and  impartially.  He  might  never 
depend  upon  loyalty  and  obedience  in  the  people,  or 
subordinate  officials,  when  the  clerical  influence  was 
liable  to  be  exerted  against  him  at  any  time.  So 
jealous  were  the  ecclesiastics  of  what  they  considered 
to  be  their  prerogatives  that  differences  between  them 
and  the  civil  power  often  arose  from  the  most  trivial 
circumstances  and  sometimes  involved  the  most  seri- 
ous consequences. 

CONFLICT   OF   CHURCH   AND  STATE. 

Toward  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  a 
Spaniard  in  Manila  murdered  a  female  slave  and 
afterwards  sought  sanctuary  in  a  convent.  The  Gov- 
ernor, Hurtado  de  Corcuera,  caused  him  to  be  dragged 
from  his  asylum  and  publicly  executed.  This  was 
the  occasion  for  a  violent  dispute  between  the  Gov- 
ernor and  Archbishop.  The  latter  closed  all  the 
churches  of  the  city,  doubtless  with  a  view  to  enlisting 
the  sympathy  of  the  populace  upon  his  side.  In  this 
instance  the  Jesuits  upheld  the  Governor  and  were 
forbidden  by  the  Archbishop  to  preach  in  any  public 
place  under  pain  of  fine  and  excommunication. 
Finally  a  strong  coalition  of  clerics  was  formed 


CONFLICT  OF  CHURCH  AND  STATE.  133 

against  the  prelate.  He  was  excommunicated;  his 
property  was  seized,  and  his  office  suspended.  He 
appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court,  but  the  answer  of 
that  body  was  to  impose  an  additional  fine  upon  him. 
Eventually  he  made  total  submission  and  issued  an 
official  decree  admitting  his  guilt  and  expressing  re- 
pentance. 

Soon  afterwards  the  Archbishop,  smarting  under 
his  recent  humiliation,  seized  another  opportunity  to 
oppose  the  civil  authority.  The  Supreme  Court,  in- 
stigated by  the  Governor,  resolved  to  oust  him  from 
his  See  and  banish  him  from  the  city.  In  pursuit 
of  this  determination  a  body  of  soldiers  was  sent 
to  arrest  him.  The  Archbishop  awaited  the  troops 
in  the  Cathedral,  holding  the  Host  aloft  in  his  hands. 
The  soldiers  doggedly  remained  until  the  prelate  was 
forced  by  fatigue  to  replace  the  sacred  object  upon 
the  altar,  when  they  seized  him  and  carried  him  to  the 
uninhabited  island  of  Corregidor,  in  Manila  Bay. 
Again  the  Archbishop  made  an  unconditional  sur- 
render and  was  permitted  to  resume  his  office. 

On  account  of  his  part  in  these  events  Governor 
Corcuera  was  imprisoned  for  five  years  by  his  succes- 
sor, but  upon  his  release  and  return  to  Spain  the  King 
rewarded  his  services  with  the  appointment  of  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Canaries.  Such  uncertainty  as  to  the 
consequences  of  his  proceedings  was  sufficient  to 
paralyze  the  actions  of  any  executive  officer. 

Governor-General  Diego  Salcedo,  during  his  entire 


134  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

term  of  office  (1663-1668),  contested  the  interference 
of  the  then  Archbishop  (Poblete)  in  civil  affairs.  The 
persistent  refusal  of  the  Archbishop  to  comply  with 
certain  royal  decrees  relating  to  Church  appointments 
led  the  Governor  to  expel  him  from  Manila.  He 
was  allowed  to  return  upon  promise  of  good  be- 
havior, but  the  friction  between  the  functionaries 
continued  until  the  death  of  Poblete.  The  Governor 
exhibited  his  joy  at  this  event  by  ordering  a  festival 
in  celebration  of  it.  This  indiscretion  brought  the 
full  power  of  the  Church,  with  the  approval  of  the 
King,  against  the  ill-fated  Governor.  He  was  seized 
by  order  of  the  Inquisition  and  cast  into  a  dungeon, 
where  he  suffered  extreme  privation  for  years.  He 
died  on  board  ship  a  prisoner  consigned  to  the  tender 
mercies  of  the  San  Oficio  in  Mexico. 

The  successor,  like  the  predecessor,  of  Salcedo 
contrived  to  preserve  peace  with  the  representatives 
of  the  Church  by  the  simple,  if  unsatisfactory, 
method  of  allowing  them  to  have  their  own  way  in 
all  matters,  whether  or  not  they  came  properly  within 
the  province  of  the  Church. 

With  the  assumption  of  office  by  Juan  de  ISTargas  in 
1678  the  old  troubles  broke  out  afresh,  and  culminated 
in  the  banishment  of  the  Archbishop.  Upon  the  ex- 
piration of  the  Governor's  term  the  cleric  sought  to 
inflict  a  public  penance  upon  the  former  in  expiation 
of  his  offense,  but  Nargas  was  protected  by  his  suc- 
cessor in  office,  Fernando  de  Bustamente,  from  the 
vengeance  of  the  Archbishop. 


CONFLICT  OF  CHURCH  AND  STATE.  135 

Governor-General  Bustamente,  having  discovered 
serious  irregularities  in  the  management  of  the  royal 
treasury,  determined  to  institute  reforms  in  the  col- 
lection and  disposition  of  public  moneys.  It  was 
a  righteous,  but  extremely  daring,  step  to  take  when 
every  branch  of  the  government  was  seamed  with  cor- 
ruption. A  conspiracy  was  set  on  foot  which  in- 
cluded high  civilian  officials  and  of  course  was  sup- 
ported by  the  ecclesiastics,  who  had  other  grievances 
against  the  Executive.  The  Archbishop  attempted  the 
arrest  of  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court,  who  in  turn 
issued  warrants  against  the  Prelate  and  his  follow- 
ers and  the  former  was  imprisoned.  A  riot  ensued, 
in  which  it  is  said  the  friars  sought  to  enlist  the 
Chinese  residents.  Priests  of  each  of  the  Orders, 
except  that  of  Jesus,  led  the  mob  in  an  attack  upon 
the  palace  of  the  Governor.  The  guards  lowered  their 
arms  before  the  upraised  crucifixes  of  the  friars, 
who  headed  the  rioters.  The  Governor  boldly  faced 
the  mob  with  a  gun,  but  it  missed  fire  and  he  was 
cut  down.  Dying  and  in  agony  he  was  dragged  to 
jail,  where  nothing  in  alleviation  of  his  suffering  was 
permitted,  even  water  being  denied  him.  He  died  in 
the  evening  of  the  same  day. 

Meanwhile  Bustamente's  son,  who  had  come  to  his 
father's  assistance,  was  shot  and  thrown  into  the 
stable  of  the  palace,  where  he  lay  for  hours  without 
any  kind  of  relief  until  he  expired.  E"o  one  was 
ever  punished  for  the  murders  and  other  crimes  com- 


136  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

mitted  on  this  occasion.  Indeed,  the  chief  instigator 
of  the  affair,  the  Archbishop,  assumed  the  head  of 
the  Government  upon  the  death  of  Fernando  de  Bus- 
tamente  and  was  permitted  to  retain  the  position  for 
nine  years,  after  which  he  was  promoted  to  a  See 
in  Mexico. 

The  strife  between  Church  and  State  continued, 
with  only  brief  intervals  of  peace,  during  the  terms 
of  succeeding  Governors,  three  of  whom  are  said  to 
have  died  in  consequence  of  the  grief  and  shame 
brought  upon  them  in  these  conflicts. 

UNWISE    MEASURES    RESPONSIBLE. 

As  between  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  apportion  blame  fairly. 
The  data  at  the  command  of  the  student  of  Philippine 
history  is  never  wholly  reliable  nor  impartial,  but 
the  records  and  chronicles  of  the  time  clearly  estab- 
lish the  fact  that  Spaniards  of  all  classes,  laymen  and 
clergy,  fell  woefully  short  of  the  performance  of  their 
complete  duty.  But  the  chief  and  fundamental  fac- 
tor in  the  maladministration  of  the  colony  was  the 
system  of  government  that  was  applied  to  it.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  about  the  good  intentions  and  hu- 
manitarian motives  of  the  legislators  in  Madrid,  but 
the  measures  adopted  for  the  execution  of  their  de- 
signs were  frequently  characterized  by  the  utmost 
unwisdom. 


SERVICES  OF  THE  FRIARS.  137 

The  condemnation  of  the  friars  should  be  tempered 
by  a  recognition  of  their  inestimable  services. 

THE  IMPORTANT  SERVICES  OF  THE  FRIARS. 

What  noticeable  degree  of  progress  has  been  at- 
tained in  the  islands  is  mainly  due  to  them,  and  with- 
out them  would  not  have  been  achieved.  That  they 
labored  hard  and  effectively  for  the  conversion  and 
civilization  of  the  natives  is  indisputable;  that  they 
were  moved  by  a  sincere,  if  sometimes  misapplied, 
zeal  for  the  promotion  of  religion  must  be  admitted ; 
and  that  they  displayed  wonderful  devotion  and  cour- 
age in  the  pursuit  of  what  they  considered  their  re- 
ligious duties  cannot  be  questioned.  The  story  of  the 
padre  of  Taal  is  touching  testimony  to  the  bravery 
and  self-abnegation  which  was  characteristic  of  most 
of  his  fellows.  When  we  turn  with  natural  disgust 
from  the  picture  of  priests  leading  a  mob  of  howling 
rioters  in  Manila,  it  were  well  to  cast  back  a  century 
in  the  history  of  Philippine  evangelization  and  look 
upon  the  fervent  friar  penetrating  the  wilderness 
upon  his  solitary  mission  with  crucifix  and  missal 
in  hand;  braving  a  thousand  unfamiliar  dangers, 
reckless  of  his  life,  cheerfully  inhabiting  a  shack 
amongst  savages,  with  no  thought  but  for  their  wel- 
fare. We  can  forgive  the  pampered  priest  of  later 
days  much  for  the  sake  of  the  memory  of  his  pioneer 
prototype. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that,  although  the  priests 


138  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

in  the  capital  and  the  richer  parishes  lived  luxuri- 
ously, the  lot  of  the  average  friar  was  one  of  ease. 
On  the  contrary,  the  life  of  the  majority  was  devoid 
of  pleasure,  or  even  comforts.  For  years,  more  or 
less,  according  to  the  ability  he  displayed,  the  mis- 
sionary, after  coming  into  the  field,  was  obliged  to 
live  under  conditions  scarcely  differing  from  those 
of  the  natives  under  his  charge.  His  allowance  was 
barely  sufficient  to  supply  the  demands  of  decency. 
He  was  cut  off  from  civilization,  often  not  seeing  a 
white  man  for  weeks  and  months  at  a  stretch.  The 
climate  and  diet  were  not  the  greatest  of  his  trials  in 
an  entirely  strange  environment,  and  it  is  greatly  to 
the  credit  of  the  class  that  there  was  never  a  lack 
of  ready  and  eager  volunteers  with  a  full  understand- 
ing of  what  was  before  them. 

The  friars  never  deserted  their  flocks  in  time  of 
danger:  on  the  contrary,  they  have  always  been  fore- 
most in  relief  and  encouragement.  More  than  one 
priest  has  fallen  to  the  fire  of  an  invading  enemy, 
and  in  time  of  stress  the  friar's  frock  has  ever  been 
found  to  the  front.  Volcanic  eruptions,  earthquakes, 
and  epidemics  have  always  found  them  steadfast  at 
their  posts.  Numerous  charitable  and  educational 
institutions  owe  their  being  to  the  Orders,  and  cer- 
tain of  their  members  have  made  notable  contributions 
to  the  cause  of  science. 

The  friars  frequently  protected  the  natives  against' 
the  severities  of  the  encomenderos  and  the  civil  power. 


SERVICES  OF  THE  FRIARS.  139 

In  the  earlier  days  they  were  generally  on  the  most 
amicable  terms  with  their  parishioners,  and  their  in- 
fluence with  the  natives  was  the  chief  factor  in  en- 
abling the  Spaniards  to  hold  the  country  without 
the  aid  of  a  commanding  force. 

Some  writers  expatiate  unnecessarily  upon  the  im- 
morality of  the  priests,  which  they  pretend  to  have 
been  almost  universal.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
charge  is  justified  in  the  cases  of  several,  but  the 
sweeping  indictment  of  the  class  is  neither  supported 
by  evidence  nor  probability.  Those  who,  like  Fore- 
man and  Younghusband,  are  familiar  with  life  in  the 
tropics,  might  be  expected  to  make  allowance  for  the 
frailties  of  a  comparatively  small  number  of  the  only 
body  of  voluntary  celibates  east  of  Suez. 

The  power  of  the  friars  for  good  was  rapidly  wan- 
ing before  the  Spanish-American  War  put  an  end  to 
their  control.  With  the  growing  enlightenment  of  the 
natives  and  the  spread  of  education  among  them,  the 
influence  of  the  priests,  which  had  always  owed  much 
of  its  force  to  superstitious  ignorance,  began  to  fail. 
Political  and  religious  unity  had  formed  a  basis  for 
a  national  spirit,  such  as  had  never  existed  before, 
and  which  now  began  to  exhibit  itself  in  sundry  mani- 
festations of  a  desire  for  independence.  There  was 
no  place  for  the  old-time  friar  in  the  new  order  of 
things.  He  had  become  an  anachronism.  Even 
though  he  had  been  willing,  he  was  quite  unable  to 
adapt  himself  to  the  changed  conditions.  The  very 


140  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

forces  that  operated  against  him  were  of  his  own  cre- 
ation. 

The  fanaticism  of  the  friars  often  led  them  into 
serious  errors  of  judgment,  but  no  matter  how  severely 
we  may  condemn  the  resultant  acts,  we  must  admire 
the  splendid  courage  displayed  in  the  prosecution  of 
their  convictions,  which  finds  a  striking  illustration 
in  the  story  of  the  attempted  conversion  of  Japan. 

ATTEMPTS    TO    CHRISTIANIZE    JAPAN. 

At  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Emperor 
of  Japan,  whose  people  had  for  long  maintained 
trade  relations  with  Luzon,  sent  an  ambassador  to 
Manila.  He  was  well  received  and  the  Governor- 
General  in  turn  despatched  an  embassy  to  Japan, 
where  a  commercial  treaty  was  effected  and  the 
Spanish  representatives  set  sail  for  the  Philippines, 
accompanied  by  a  party  of  Japanese  nobles  and  mer- 
chants, but  the  ship  with  all  hands  went  down  upon 
the  way.  A  second  expedition  was  despatched,  and 
on  this  occasion  the  purpose  of  proselyting  was  dis- 
tinctly provided  for.  Fray  Pedro  Bautista  was  ap- 
pointed ambassador,  and  his  suite  included  three  other 
priests.  A  new  treaty  of  commerce  was  entered  into 
and  Bautista  secured  permission  for  himself  and  his 
fellow  priests  to  remain  indefinitely  in  Japan  and  to 
build  a  church  near  Osaka. 

A  Portuguese  settlement  of  traders  had  been  es- 
tablished for  many  years  at  Nagasaki,  where  they  had 


ATTEMPTS  TO  CHRISTIANIZE  JAPAN.  141 

a  Jesuit  Mission,  whose  priests  had  apparently  con- 
ducted their  affairs  and  effected  their  conversions  with 
the  tactful  diplomacy  characteristic  of  the  members 
of  the  Order  of  Jesus,  for  they  seem  to  have  had  no 
friction  with  the  Japanese  authorities.  Bautista  and 
his  companions  did  not  observe  the  same  prudence  in 
their  actions,  and  soon  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
Emperor  on  account  of  their  too  open  and  zealous 
proselyting.  An  order  of  expulsion  was  issued 
against  them,  but,  although  their  leader  set  sail  for 
Manila,  the  other  three  Franciscans  remained.  One 
of  them  was  thrown  into  prison  and  his  colleagues  be- 
came refugees.  Fray  Bautista's  return  to  the  Philip- 
pines did  not  betoken  abandonment  of  the  project 
by  any  means.  In  fact,  his  purpose  was  solely  to 
secure  reinforcements,  and  he  soon  landed  in  Japan 
again  with  a  number  of  friars.  This  proceeding,  in 
the  face  of  his  prohibition,  seriously  angered  the  Em- 
peror, who  ordered  the  arrest  of  all  the  Franciscan 
priests  and  their  native  followers.  Twenty-six  of 
these,  including  Pedro  Bautista,  were  put  to  an 
ignominious  death.  After  their  ears  and  noses  had 
been  cut  off  they  were  paraded  about  the  country  and 
finally  crucified  at  Nagasaki.  Meanwhile  no  restric- 
tions were  put  upon  the  priests  of  the  Portuguese 
settlement. 

The  horrible  end  of  the  Franciscan  missionaries, 
far  from  deterring  their  brethren  from  similar  ef- 
forts, seems  to  have  created  a  zealous  enthusiasm. 


142  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Numbers  of  priests  in  the  guise  of  traders  succeeded 
in  landing  in  Japan,  and  for  twenty  years  or  more 
the  influx  continued,  despite  that  they  were  killed 
whenever  discovered.  At  length  the  Emperor  was 
forced  to  issue  an  edict  imposing  the  penalty  of  death 
upon  all  who  might  carry  priests  to  the  country  and 
the  forfeiture  of  any  ship  in  which  a  priest  had 
come.  This  led  the  owners  of  vessels  to  decline  to 
convey  missionaries  to  Japan,  and  the  Archbishop  and 
Governor  added  their  prohibition. 

Not  deterred  by  these  difficulties  the  heads  of 
the  Orders  bought  a  vessel  and  paid  a  large  premium 
to  the  crew  to  carry  a  number  of  friars  and  smuggle 
them  into  Japan.  Ten  priests  were  thus  landed  and 
shortly  afterwards  met  death  at  the  stake. 

Following  this  disaster  $10,000  was  subscribed 
in  Manila  for  the  purpose  of  shipping  another  party 
of  would-be  martyrs  to  Japan.  On  this  occasion 
thirty-six  priests,  a  greater  number  than  had  ever 
sailed  at  one  time  before,  embarked,  but  the  vessel 
was  wrecked  upon  the  coast  of  Ilocos. 

A  large  junk  was  next  prepared  at  a  distance  from 
Manila  for  the  same  purpose,  but  before  it  could  sail 
the  Governor  interfered  and  from  that  time  strictly 
interposed  his  power  and  authority  against  further 
missionary  enterprise  in  the  same  direction.  Thus 
after  forty  years'  endeavor  the  Philippine  friars  aban- 
doned the  project  of  Christianizing  Japan  only  when 
it  was  physically  impossible  to  proceed  with  it. 


DUTCH  ATTACKS  UPON  THE  COLONY.     143 

DUTCH  ATTACKS  UPON  THE  COLONY. 

During  the  sixteenth  and  the  first  half  of  the  fol- 
lowing century  Spain  and  Holland  were  bitter  ene- 
mies, and  their  fleets  were  constantly  in  collision. 
Dutch  privateers  infested  the  waters  about  the  eastern 
possessions  of  Spain.  They  lay  in  wait  for  the  Span- 
ish treasure  galleons  from  Mexico,  and  occasionally 
secured  a  rich  prize.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Span- 
iards in  the  Philippines  from  time  to  time  fitted  out 
expeditions  to  attack  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the 
Moluccas. 

During  the  Governorship  of  Juan  de  Silva  (1609- 
1616)  a  Dutch  squadron  anchored  off  the  entrance  to 
Manila  Bay.  It  happened  that  owing  to  recent  losses 
by  shipwreck  and  the  absence  of  several  vessels  the 
naval  forces  of  the  Philippines  were  unusually  weak 
and  in  no  condition  to  withstand  the  enemy.  The 
Dutchmen  lay  in  the  path  of  Chinese  and  Japanese 
traders  and  secured  an  immense  booty.  In  this  oc- 
cupation several  months  passed  and  meanwhile  the 
Spaniards  were  enabled  to  prepare  an  armament. 
The  Governor  took  advantage  of  the  superstitious  fail- 
ings of  the  age  to  pretend  a  dream  in  which  Saint 
Mark  had  appeared  to  him  and  promised  aid  against 
the  enemy.  For  several  days  previous  to  the  battle 
holy  images  and  relics  were  exposed  to  public  view 
and  carried  in  procession  through  the  city.  The 
clergy  exhorted  the  populace  and  did  much  to  dispel 
the  prevailing  dread. 


144  THE  PHILIPPINES 

De  Silva  had  determined  to  risk  everything  upon 
the  impending  fight,  and  in  the  event  of  a  decisive 
victory  by  the  Dutch,  Manila  must  have  fallen  into 
their  hands.  The  Governor  took  the  command  in 
person  and  embarked  all  the  available  Spaniards,  to 
the  number  of  one  thousand,  together  with  a  large 
force  of  natives,  upon  the  eight  ships  which  formed 
the  line  of  battle. 

The  Battle  of  Playa  Hondo  was  fought  on  Saint 
Mark's  day.  After  a  fierce  fight,  that  lasted  for  six 
hours,  the  Dutch  were  completely  defeated,  three  of 
their,  ships  were  destroyed,  and  merchandise  to  the 
value  of  $300,000  was  captured. 

In  1626  the  Spaniards  from  the  Philippines  made 
a  settlement  upon  the  island  of  Formosa,  but  it  was 
neglected,  and  in  1642  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch,  wrho  held  it  until  they  were  driven  out  by 
the  Chinese  about  twenty  years  later. 

INFLUX  OF  CHINESE  TKADEKS. 

With  a  view  to  the  development  of  the  commerce 
of  the  islands  Legaspi  encouraged  the  Chinese  traders 
and  passed  protective  measures  for  their  benefit.  Pre- 
vious to  this  the  dealings  of  Chinese  traders  had 
been  conducted  on  board  their  junks,  and  even  that 
precaution  did  not  save  them  from  being  occasionally 
boarded  and  pillaged  by  the  natives.  In  time  the 
Chinese  gained  sufficient  confidence  to  come  ashore 
with  their  wares,  and  before  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 


INFLUX  OF  CHINESE  TRADERS.  145 

century  they  were  paying  rent  for  the  land  they  oc- 
cupied. 

As  the  numbers  of  Chinese  merchants  in  Manila 
grew,  the  Government  provided  them  with  a  large 
building,  which  was  called  the  Alcayceria.  This  was 
a  large  square  of  shops  with  a  dwelling  room  above 
each.  It  was  opened  in  1580  in  the  section  of  Bi- 
nondo.  Later  on,  when  the  Chinese  had  outgrown 
the  Alcayceria,  another  and  much  larger  center  was 
provided  for  them.  This  was  the  celebrated  Parian, 
or  market  place,  which  was  demolished  by  order  of 
the  Government  in  1860. 

In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Span- 
iards were  alarmed  by  the  threatened  invasion  of  the 
Chinese  who  had  wrested  Formosa  from  the  Dutch 
settlers.  The  apprehension  of  the  residents  of  Manila 
was  increased  by  the  presence  in  their  midst  of  a  large 
body  of  Mongols  with  whom  no  ties  had  been  formed. 
With  a  view  to  disposing  of  this  internal  danger  be- 
fore the  arrival  of  the  expected  enemy,  the  Chinese 
traders  of  the  Parian  were  incited  to  an  act  of  vio- 
lence. This  was  made  the  pretext  for  turning  artil- 
lery upon  the  quarter.  A  great  number,  probably 
thousands,  of  the  Mongols  were  killed  in  the  assault 
that  followed.  In  the  opinion  of  Juan  de  la  Con- 
cepcion  it  had  been  the  original  intention  of  the 
Spaniards  to  slaughter  all  the  Chinese,  who  numbered 
about  ten  thousand,  but  they  were  restrained  by  the 
thought  of  the  loss  to  themselves  that  would  inevitably 
10 


146  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ensue,  for,  as  the  historian  says,  "without  the  trade 
and  commerce  of  the  Chinese  these  dominions  could 
not  have  subsisted."*  In  addition  to  the  foreign  trade 
which  was  conducted  by  them,  almost  all  the  mechan- 
ical industries  of  Manila  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
Chinese. 

In  1603  a  serious  uprising  of  the  Chinese  oc- 
curred. It  seems  impossible  to  learn  the  true  cause 
that  led  to  this  appalling  affair,  but  it  would  appear 
that  the  rapid  growth  of  the  Mongol  colony  had  ex- 
cited the  apprehensions  of  the  Spaniards  with  whom 
the  fear  of  a  Chinese  invasion  was  a  periodical  night- 
mare from  the  time  of  Li  Ma  Hung's  incursion.  On 
this  occasion  a  crisis  was  reached  when  two  mandarins 
arrived  in  the  Philippines  as  ambassadors  from  the 
Emperor  of  China.  After  their  departure  prepara- 
tions for  defense  were  pushed  with  feverish  haste. 
Troops  were  drilled,  arms  and  artillery  were  over- 
hauled, and  the  natives  were  ordered  to  carry  their 
weapons  constantly.  The  Chinese  in  Manila  looked 
upon  these  preparations  as  a  menace  to  themselves, 
as  no  doubt  they  were,  and  proceeded  to  raise  for- 
tifications outside  the  city.  Finally  the  frightened 
Chinese  began  hostilities  by  burning  houses  in  the 
suburbs  and  threatening  the  city.  Of  a  picked  body 
of  one  hundred  Spanish  troops  led  by  an  ex-governor- 


*Historia  General  de  Philipinas.  Juan  de  la  Concepcion. 
14  Vols.  Manila,  1788.  Dela  Concepcion  estimates  the  number 
of  Chinese  in  the  Philippines  in  1638  at  33,000. 


INFLUX  OF  CHINESE  TRADERS.  147 

general,  which  was  sent  against  them,  hardly  one 
escaped  with  his  life.  Elated  by  this  victory,  the 
Chinese  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  the  city,  and  a  long 
struggle  ensued,  in  which  they  were  finally  repulsed 
and  fled.  They  were  pursued  for  miles,  and  utterly 
scattered.  It  is  said  that  upwards  of  eighteen  thou- 
sand Chinese  were  slain  in  this  uprising.  In  1639, 
and  again  in  1660,  similar  outbreaks  occurred,  and 
were  only  quelled  after  thousands  of  the  Orientals 
had  lost  their  lives. 

In  1755  it  was  resolved  to  expel  and  to  ex- 
clude all  non-Christian  Chinese.  Before  the  date 
of  its  execution  this  decree  was  evaded  by  a  large 
number,  who  became  baptized,  or  signified  their  inten- 
tion to  do  so.  The  order  of  expulsion  was  enforced 
against  upwards  of  two  thousand  residents,  and  for 
a  time  newcomers  were  rigidly  excluded. 

In  1763  the  Chinese  joined  the  British  invaders, 
and  as  a  consequence  great  numbers  of  them  were 
killed  in  the  provinces  where  the  Spaniards  retained 
control  of  the  country. 

Foreman*  says:  "Except  a  few  Europeans  and  a 
score  of  Western  Asiatics,  the  Chinese  who  remained 
were  the  only  merchants  in  the  Archipelago.  The 
natives  had  neither  knowledge,  tact,  energy,  nor  de- 
sire to  compete  with  them.  They  cannot  at  this  day 
do  so  successfully,  and  the  Chinese  may  be  considered 

*The  Philippine  Islands.  John  Foreman,  F.  R.  G.  S  New 
York,  1899. 


148  m  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

a  boon  to  the  colony,  for  without  them,  living  would  be 
much  dearer,  commodities  and  labor  of  all  kinds  more 
scarce,  and  the  export  and  import  trade  much  em- 
barrassed. The  Chinese  are  really  the  people  who 
gave  to  the  natives  their  first  notions  of  trade,  indus- 
try, and  fruitful  work.  They  taught  them,  amongst 
many  other  useful  things,  the  extraction  of  saccharine 
juice  from  sugar-cane  and  the  working  of  wrought 
iron.  They  introduced  into  the  colony  the  first 
sugar-mills  with  vertical  stone  crushers  and  iron 
boiling-pans." 

The  history  of  the  last  hundred  and  fifty  years 
shows  that  the  Chinese,  although  tolerated,  were  al- 
ways regarded  by  the  Spanish  colonists  as  an  unwel- 
come race,  and  the  natives  have  learned  from  example 
to  despise  them.  From  time  to  time,  especially  since 
the  year  1763,  the  feeling  against  them  has  run  very 
high. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  the  status  of  the 
Chinese  was  much  improved.  Many  of  them  have 
adopted  Christianity  and  have  married  native  women. 
Important  Government  contracts  have  at  times  been 
made  with  Chinamen,  and  some  few  have  received 
public  recognition  in  the  form  of  decorations  and 
titles. 

Their  numbers  have  steadily  increased  since  the 
enactment  of  the  exclusion  law  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, many  ways  of  evading  which  have  been  devised 
by  the  wily  Oriental.  That  the  influx  has  continued 


SPANIARDS'  CONTACT  WITH  THE  MOROS.       149 

during  recent  years  is  shown  by  the  Census  return 
of  over  forty  thousand  Chinese  of  foreign  birth. 

THE     SPANIARDS     COME     INTO     CONTACT      WITH     THE 
MOKOS. 

During  the  early  years  of  the  Spanish  occupation 
no  attention  was  paid  to  Mindanao  and  the  Sulu 
Archipelago,  and  the  Moros  on  their  part  seemed  to 
have  refrained  from  encroaching  upon  the  islands 
under  Spanish  control.  In  1596  a  Portuguese* 
adventurer  obtained  the  royal  sanction  to  attempt 
the  conquest  of  Mindanao.  The  expedition,  which 
consisted  of  one  vessel  carrying  men-at-arms  and  the 
invariable  complement  of  priests,  ended  disastrously. 
The  commander  and  several  of  the  soldiers  were  killed 
and  the  ship  returned  to  Manila,  having  accomplished 
nothing  more  than  arousing  the  resentment  of  the 
Muhammadans. 

From  this  time  commenced  the  troubles  with  the 
southern  natives,  which  continued  over  a  period  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  Hitherto  the  piracy, 
which  was  the  chief  occupation  of  those  people,  had 
been  confined  to  the  waters  adjacent  to  their  own  ter- 
ritory, but  they  noAV  began  to  extend  their  depreda- 
tions to  the  northern  islands.  The  sultans  of  Min- 
danao and  Sulu  entered  into  an  offensive  and  de- 
fensive alliance  against  the  Spaniards  and  co-operated 

*From  1581  to  1640,  Portugal  was  an  appanage  of  the  Spanish 
Crown. 


150  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

in  the  organization  of  piratical  expeditions.  They 
never  lacked  for  men  to  man  their  ships  from  a  popu- 
lation of  sea-faring  freebooters  by  heredity,  and  they 
were  well  armed.  No  portion  of  the  Archipelago  was 
free  from  the  incursions  of  the  Muhammadans,  who 
swooped,  in  their  war  junks,  upon  coast  towns,  plun- 
dered and  burned,  and  were  at  sea  again  before  any 
punitive  force  could  reach  the  spot.  The  principal 
part  of  their  booty  consisted  of  captives  who  were 
carried  into  slavery.  Among  these  were  sometimes 
white  men,  and  priests  were  regarded  as  particularly 
desirable  prizes. 

These  depredations  seriously  impeded  the  devel- 
opment of  coast  towns  and  inter-island  traffic.  The 
effects  were  especially  severe  in  the  Visayas,  some  of 
the  islands  of  which  were  almost  depopulated  in  con- 
sequence, and  all  of  their  inhabitants  were  reduced 
to  a  condition  of  abject  poverty,  so  that  the  Govern- 
ment was  more  than  once  constrained  to  remit  all 
taxes.  Each  succeeding  governor  essayed  the  task 
of  suppressing  these  marauders.  Countless  expedi- 
tions were  despatched  against  them.  They  were  at- 
tacked on  land  and  at  sea.  A  garrison  was  main- 
tained in  Mindanao  at  great  expense.  All  these  meas- 
ures proved  ineffectual  to  suppress  the  scourge,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  introduction  of  gunboats  that  the 
Spaniards  succeeded  in  getting  the  upper  hand.  The 
Moros  were  never,  however,  subdued  by  the  Span- 
iards. Some  of  the  chiefs  made  nominal  submission 


THE  BRITISH  TAKE  MANILA.  151 

while  retaining  actual  independence,  and  several  cam- 
paigns were  conducted  in  Mindanao  during  the  last 
twenty  years  of  Spanish  occupancy  of  the  Philip- 
pines. 

THE   BRITISH   TAKE   MANILA. 

In  1762  England  declared  war  against  France  and 
Spain,  and  a  British  fleet  was  despatched  to  the 
Philippines.  It  arrived  in  September  of  that  year 
under  Admiral  Cornish,  with  General  Draper  in 
command  of  the  troops.  The  British  squadron 
anchored  in  Manila  Bay  and  two  officers  were  sent 
ashore  to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  city,  which  was 
refused.  The  entire  garrison  of  Manila  at  the  time 
consisted  of  six  hundred  soldiers  with  eighty  pieces 
of  artillery,  whilst  the  British  force  numbered  three 
thousand  seamen,  fifteen  hundred  European  soldiers, 
and  about  a  thousand  Sipahis. 

Troops  were  landed  from  the  British  vessels  and  a 
siege  and  bombardment  of  the  city  commenced.  Dur- 
ing the  first  week  of  the  attack  the  defenders  were  re- 
inforced by  five  thousand  native  troops,  with  whom 
an  assault  in  three  columns  upon  the  British  posi- 
tions was  made.  They  were  beaten  back  with  loss 
and  the  natives  dispersed  through  the  province.  On 
the  5th  of  October  the  British  troops  entered  the  walls 
of  the  city  and  upon  the  following  day  Manila  was 
given  up  by  the  Archbishop,  who  was  acting-Governor 
at  this  time.  By  the  terms  of  this  capitulation  the 


152  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

entire  Archipelago  was  surrendered  and  an  indemnity 
of  four  millions  of  dollars  was  agreed  upon.  The  day 
before  the  capitulation  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
named  Simon  de  Anda  y  Salazar,  escaped  in  a  native 
boat  and  fled  to  the  Province  of  Bulacan,  where  he 
proclaimed  himself  Governor-General,  and  affected 
to  ignore  the  action  of  the  Archbishop.  Simon  de 
Anda  raised  troops  among  the  natives  and  carried  on 
a  guerilla  war  until  the  British  evacuated  the  islands, 
which  they  did  early  in  1764. 

During  the  period  of  something  more  than  a  year 
of  British  occupancy,  Luzon  was  in  a  condition  of 
extreme  disturbance.  In  the  provinces  lawless- 
ness was  rampant  and  necessarily  unchecked.  It 
was  some  years  before  the  effects  of  this  violent  dis- 
turbance of  the  administration  of  government  had 
subsided. 

The  most  notable  of  these  affairs  was  the  rising  in 
Ilocos  Sur  under  the  leadership  of  one  Diego  de 
Silan,  a  native  Christian.  The  city  of  Vigan  was 
taken  and  sacked;  the  friars  were  held  for  ransom 
and  the  surrounding  neighborhood  was  pillaged. 
.Silan  made  his  headquarters  at  Vigan  and  issued  a 
manifesto  in  which  he  declared  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
was  Captain-General  of  the  district  and  that  himself 
was  His  Alcalde.  Silan  sent  a  messenger  to  Manila 
conveying  his  acknowledgment  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  King  of  England,  and  the  British  Governor  seems 
to  have  appointed  him  Alcalde  Mayor. 


THE  BRITISH  TAKE  MANILA.  153 

This  rebellion  was  only  suppressed  with  the  assas- 
sination of  Silan  in  May,  1763. 

The  Island  of  Luzon  was  not  pacified  until  1765, 
after  the  Spaniards  had  lost,  according  to  Zuniga,"* 
seventy  of  their  countrymen  and  one  hundred  and 
forty  native  soldiers.  The  rebels  are  said,  by  the 
same  authority,  to  have  lost  ten  thousand  lives  in  these 
uprisings. 

The  conduct  of  Simon  de  Anda  during  this  crisis 
in  the  affairs  of  the  Colony  met  with  the  approval  of 
the  King,  and  a  few  years  afterwards  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor-General.  His  first  act  was  to  wreak 
vengeance  upon  all  who  had  opposed  him  in  his  self- 
constituted  authority  and  upon  others  with  whom  his 
uncontrollable  temper  and  imperious  disposition  had 
brought  him  in  conflict.  He  imprisoned  several  mili- 
tary officers  and  officials,  and  others  he  sent  back  to 
Spain.  He  quarreled  with  the  clergy,  and  in  fact 
created  enemies  on  all  sides.  The  consequent  spirit 
of  unrest  and  hostility  to  the  Executive  spread  from 
Manila  to  the  provinces,  and  the  term  of  Anda,  which 
expired  with  his  death  in  1776,  was  marked  by  a  num- 


*  "Estadismo  de  las  Islas  Filipinas  o  mis  viajes  por  este 
pais,  por  el  Padre  Fr.  Joaquin  Martinez  de  Zuniga,  Augustino 
calzado.  Publica  esta  obra  por  priinera  vez  extensamente 
anotada,  W.  E.  Retana.  Two  Vols.,  1893.  Although  written 
in  1803  and  drawn  upon  by  later  writers,  notably  Buzeta, 
this  valuable  book  remained  in  manuscript  form  for  ninety 
years. 


154  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

her  of  riots  and  rebellions  in  different  parts  of  the 
island. 

UPRISINGS    OF    THE    NATIVES. 

The  entire  period  of  Spanish  occupation  of  the 
Archipelago  was  marked  by  revolutionary  movements 
and  uprisings  of  more  or  less  gravity  in  different 
parts  of  the  islands.  There  were  numerous  causes 
for  the  spirit  of  discontent  that  led  to  these  dis- 
turbances. Amongst  the  most  important  may  be 
mentioned  the  system  of  encomiendas ;  conscrip- 
tion for  military  service ;  enforced  labor  for  the  Gov- 
ernment without  remuneration ;  taxation  and  com- 
pulsory contributions  to  the  Church ;  the  conduct  of 
the  friars  and  their  exactions;  and  the  maladminis- 
tration of  Spanish  minor  officials  in  the  provinces. 
These  causes  led  through  many  minor  movements  of 
a  similar  character  in  a  gradually  rising  tide  of 
rebellion  to  the  Tagalog  outbreak  in  1896. 

In  1622  the  natives  of  the  island  of  Bohol  broke 
into  resistance  to  the  missionaries.  They  burned  sev- 
eral churches  and  otherwise  inflicted  damage  upon 
the  towns  before  they  were  subdued.  A  more  serious 
rising  in  1744  in  the  same  island  is  said  to  have 
been  occasioned  by  the  tyranny  of  a  priest  who  ab- 
rogated to  himself  the  powers  of  a  magistrate  and 
caused  natives  to  be  confined  at  his  pleasure.  It 
seems  that  the  priest  had  ordered  the  body  of  a 
native  to  lie  unburied  until  it  decomposed.  The 


UPRISINGS  OF  THE  NATIVES.  155 

brother  of  the  latter,  a  man  named  Dagohoy,  killed 
the  priest  in  revenge  and  raised  the  standard  of 
revolt 

A  large  number  of  disaffected  natives  joined  the 
rebel,  and  the  hand  maintained  its  independence  for 
thirty-five  years,  during  which  time  the  Government 
frequently  found  it  necessary  to  send  troops  against 
them.  Finally  Dagohoy  and  his  followers  surren- 
dered on  condition  of  receiving  a  full  pardon. 

Lev  to  was  the  <eene  of  an  insurrection,  in  10-2, 
when  it  became  necessary  for  the  Governor  of  Celni 
to  reinforce  the  local  Governor  with  forty  vessels  and 
troops  before  peace  could  be  restored*  In  1649  the 
Governor-General  decided  to  press  natives  of  Samar 
into  service  at  the  Cavite  Arsenal.  The  result  was  a 
serious  uprising  under  a  native  named  Sumoroy.  The 
rebels  killed  a  priest  and  burned  several  churches 
before  they  took  to  the  hills.  This  outbreak  was  only 
crushed  with  difficulty  and  not  until  the  leader  had 
been  betrayed  by  some  of  his  own  people. 

The  riots  of  1649  extended  to  other  provinces  for 
the  same  reason.  In  Albay  the  natives  rose ;  in  Mas- 
bate  Island  they  killed  a  Spanish  officer ;  a  priest  was 
murdered  in  Zamboanga ;  a  Spaniard  was  assassinated 
in  Cebu;  and  several  Europeans  lost  their  lives  in 
Caraga  and  Butuan.  In  1660  the  natives  of  Pam- 
panga  and  Pangasinan  broke  into  revolt  as  the  result 
of  an  order  to  cut  timber  for  the  Government.  The 
insurgents  formed  three  bodies  aggregating  upwards 


156  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

of  ten  thousand  armed  men  under  the  leadership  of 
"King"  Malong.  Ilocos  province  declared  for  the 
rebel  chief  and  furnished  him  with  a  body  of  recruits. 
Reinforcements  came  in  from  every  hand  until  Ma- 
long  was  enabled  to  take  the  field  with  forty  thousand 
followers.  Against  this  formidable  uprising  the 
Spaniards  sent  several  detachments  of  troops  and  a 
flotilla  of  armed  vessels.  The  insurgents  were  routed 
at  all  points  and  their  leaders  hanged. 

In  1823  a  body  of  native  troops,  headed  by  a  Creole 
officer  named  Novales,  attempted  to  seize  the  capital 
and  subvert  the  Government.  In  1827  Cebu  and 
several  other  towns  of  the  island  were  the  scenes  of 
violent  outbreaks,  and  in  1844  the  Governor  of  Negros 
Island  was  killed  in  a  rising  due,  it  is  said,  to  the 
forced  employment  of  State  prisoners  on  the  Gov- 
ernor's private  account. 

What  is  known  as  the  Cavite  Insurrection  occurred 
in  1872.  A  portion  of  the  native  troops  was  im- 
plicated in  this  affair.  They  took  possession  of  the 
Arsenal  expecting  to  be  supported  by  their  accom- 
plices in  Manila,  but  through  some  misunderstanding 
as  to  the  signal  for  the  uprising  the  plan  for  co- 
operation failed.  The  mutinous  soldiers  were  soon 
suppressed. 

For  alleged  complicity  in  this  affair  Doctor  Joseph 
Burgos  and  three  other  native  priests  were  executed 
and  several  native  clergy  and  laymen  were  banished 
from  the  country.  The  victims  had  made  themselves 


UPRISINGS  OF  THE  NATIVES.  157 

odious  to  the  Spanish  clergy  by  demanding  the  en- 
forcement of  the  enactments  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
which  would  have  required  the  friars  to  retire  from 
their  incumbencies  to  monastic  life. 

There  appears  to  be  evidence  that  the  friars  insti- 
gated the  Cavite  outbreak  with  a  view  to  inculpating 
the  native  priests. 


THE  PASSING  OF  SPANISH  DOMINION. 


IV. 

THE  PASSING  OF  SPANISH  DOMINION. 

Birth  of  the  Katipunan — The  Patriot  of  the  Philippines — 
The  Tagal  Rebellion— War  with  the  United  States— The 
Treaty  of  Paris — The  Form  of  Spanish  Administration — 
The  Encomenderos — The  Alcaldes — The  Provincial  Gov- 
ernors— Municipal  Officials — The  Audencia — Inadequate 
Reforms — The  Judicial  System — The  Tardiness  of  Legal 
Processes. 

The  severity  of  the  Government  in  meting  out  pun- 
ishment to  those  suspected  of  implication  in  the  Ca- 
vite  disturbance  had  a  deep  and  lasting  effect  upon  the 
natives.  They  knew  that  it  was  due  to  the  insistence 
of  the  friars,  who  had  by  this  time  established  so 
complete  an  influence  over  the  civil  authorities  that 
the  former  were  justly  held  responsible  for  most  of  the 
abuses  under  which  the  people  suffered.  The  eccle- 
siastics were  the  open  opponents  of  reform,  and  from 
the  inception  of  the  Colony  had  thwarted  most  move- 
ments in  that  direction,  whether  emanating  from  the 
local,  or  the  national,  government.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  Spanish  regime  in  the  islands,  the  friars  had 
become  fully  aware  of  the  widespread  hatred  for  them- 
selves, which  existed  among  all  classes  of  the  natives. 
The  knowledge  seems  to  have  goaded  them  to  a 
greater  display  of  arrogance  and  to  wholesale  repris- 
als against  all  whom  they  knew  or  suspected  to  be 
inimical. 

11  (  161  ) 


162  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Freemasonry  had  been  introduced  to  the  Philip- 
pines about  ten  years  before  the  Cavite  outbreak. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  everywhere  opposed 
to  secret  societies,  and  to  the  Freemasons  most  of  all. 

BIKTH   OF  THE   KATIPUNAN. 

The  Insular  lodges  soon  turned  into  political  or- 
ganizations, and  thus  incurred  the  extra  antagonism 
of  the  priests.  The  majority  of  those  executed,  and 
those  exiled,  on  account  of  the  Cavite  insurrection 
were  members  of  the  Masonic  body.  Out  of  the  Free- 
masons grew  a  number  of  independent  societies,  each 
more  radical  than  its  predecessors,  culminating  in  the 
Katipunan.  The  members  of  this  order  were  Tagals, 
mostly  in  the  ranks  of  the  working  people;  deter- 
mined, desperate  men,  who  had  nothing  but  their  lives 
to  lose.  Their  purpose  was  "to  redeem  the  Philip- 
pines from  its  tyrants,  the  friars,  and  to  found  a 
communistic  republic."  In  1896  the  Katipunan  prob- 
ably numbered  about  fifty  thousand  members.  It  was 
the  -inciting  factor  in  the  Tagal  Rebellion  and  the 
backbone  of  the  movement. 

In  1895  and  1896  the  authorities  adopted  the  most 
severe  measures  to  suppress  the  Katipunan,  with  pre- 
cisely the  reverse  effect  to  that  intended.  The  friars, 
who  often  acted  in  the  capacity  of  detectives  for  the 
civil  power,  caused  the  deportation  of  great  numbers 
of  suspects. 

Without  entertaining  the  sentiment  of  patriotism 


THE  PATRIOT  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES.  163 

in  the  broader  sense,  the  Tagal  has  always  evinced 
strong  attachment  to  the  soil  and  no  penalty,  short  of 
death,  could  be  more  severe  than  exile  from  his 
native  village. 

Sawyer*  says :  "The  greatest  and  the  best-founded 
complaint  of  the  natives  against  the  priests  was  that 
whoever  displeased  them,  either  in  personal  or  money 
matters,  was  liable  to  be  denounced  to  the  authorities 
as  a  filibuster,  and  to  be  torn  from  home  and  family 
and  deported  to  some  distant  and  probably  unhealthy 
spot,  there  to  reside  at  his  own  cost  for  an  indefinite 
time  by  arbitrary  authority,  without  process  of  law. 
Such  a  punishment,  euphoniously  termed  'forced  resi- 
dence/ sometimes  involved  the  death  of  the  exile  and 
always  caused  heavy  expense,  as  a  pardon  could  not  be 
obtained  without  bribing  some  one." 

THE  PATKIOT  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  most  notable  victim  of  this  system  of  lawless 
persecution  was  Rizal,  the  hero  patriot  of  the  Philip- 
pines, who  suffered  deportation,  and  ultimately  death, 
as  a  result  of  the  machinations  of  the  friars. 

Jose  Rizal  y  Mercado  was  born  about  the  year 
1865,  at  Calamba,  in  Laguna  Province.  His  father, 
a  Filipino  of  some  means,  was  able  and  anxious  to 
afford  him  all  possible  facilities  for  acquiring  a  lib- 
eral education,  especially  after  the  boy  had  displayed 

*The  Inhabitants  of  the  Philippines.  F.  N.  Sawyer.  New 
York,  1900. 


164  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

unusual  talent  and  application  under  the  instruction 
of  the  Jesuits  at  Manila.  He  was  sent  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Madrid,  from  which  he  secured  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Medicine  and  Philosophy.  Later  he 
prosecuted  his  studies  in  Paris  and  at  various  Ger- 
man universities,  not  without  imbibing  something  of 
the  socialistic  ideas  that  pervaded  those  institutions 
at  the  time.  The  unhappy  condition  of  his  native 
land  was  the  subject  of  Rizal's  constant  concern,  and 
he  pondered  deeply  upon  the  problem  of  its  deliver- 
ance from  the  thraldom  of  the  friars.  Xeither  then, 
nor  at  any  later  time,  does  Rizal  appear  to  have  har- 
bored any  treasonable  thoughts  against  the  Spanish 
Government.  Indeed,  his  last  voluntary  act  was  an 
exhibition  of  loyalty.  But  in  his  early  years  he  be- 
came firmly  convinced  that  the  future  prosperity  of 
the  Philippines  depended  upon  its  freedom  from  the 
domination  of  the  friars,  and  he  was  ready  to  support 
any  movement  having  that  object  in  view. 

During  Doctor  Rizal's  stay  in  Germany  he  pub- 
lished a  romance  entitled  "Noli  me  iangere,"  in 
which  the  priests  of  the  Philippines  were  depicted  in 
an  unattractive  light  and  their  worst  practices  ex- 
posed. This  was  followed  by  another  political  novel 
on  somewhat  similar  lines.  The  books  were  written 
in  Spanish  and  were  doubtless  widely  read  amongst 
the  class  which  was  held  up  to  odium  in  them. 

Upon  his  return  to  the  islands,  shortly  after  the 
publication  of  these  works,  Rizal  further  excited  the 


THE  PATRIOT  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES.  165 

enmity  of  the  ecclesiastical  body  by  disputing  the 
title  of  the  Dominican  Order  to  certain  lands  which 
they  occupied  in  his  native  town.  He  also  allied  him- 
self with  other  patriots  of  similar  disposition  and 
founded  the  "Liga  Filipino,"  a  secret  society,  most 
of  the  members  of  which  were  Freemasons.  The  prin- 
cipal article  of  their  program  was  the  "expulsion  of 
the  friars,  and  confiscation  of  their  estates." 

At  length  it  became  patent  to  Eizal  that  his  safety 
depended  upon  leaving  the  country.  He  returned  to 
Europe,  and  during  his  absence  his  relatives  and  the 
chief  families  of  Calamba  were  evicted  without  notice 
or  compensation  from  the  holdings  they  rented  from 
the  religious  order. 

In  1893  Eizal  took  up  his  residence  in  Hong 
Kong  with  the  intention  of  following  his  profession. 
He  appears  to  have  received  the  assurance  of  the 
Governor-General,  through  the  Spanish  Consul,  that 
he  might  return  to  the  Philippines  with  confidence  as 
to  his  personal  safety.  It  is  hardly  probable  that 
without  some  such  guarantee  he  would  have  ven- 
tured to  land  openly  at  the  capital  and  less  probable 
that  he  would  have  included  in  his  luggage  revolu- 
tionary literature.  However,  he  was  immediately 
arrested  upon  the  charge  that  the  Custom  House  of- 
ficers had  discovered  seditious  proclamations  amongst 
his  effects. 

Eizal  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  an  indefinite  term 
of  "enforced  residence"  at  Dapitan,  on  the  north 


166  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

shore  of  Mindanao  Island.  In  July,  1896,  he  peti- 
tioned the  Governor-General  to  be  permitted  to  go 
to  Cuba  and  serve  the  Government  as  an  army  doc- 
tor. His  request  was  granted,  and  he  proceeded  to 
Manila,  arriving,  by  unfortunate  chance,  just  as  the 
Rebellion  broke  out.  Ere  this  the  name  of  Rizal  had 
become  a  power  with  his  countrymen,  and  his  exile 
had  strenghtened,  rather  than  relaxed,  his  hold  upon 
their  memories  and  affections.  Emilio  Aguinaldo  had 
not  yet  come  into  the  public  view,  and  there  was 
at  this  time  no  Filipino  whose  influence  over  the 
masses  could  have  been  as  great  as  that  of  Rizal. 
His  presence  in  the  capital  at  this  juncture  excited 
the  apprehension  of  the  authorities  and  he  was  shipped 
to  Spain  at  the  earliest  possible  opportunity. 

In  view  of  succeeding  events  it  is  well  to  note  that 
Rizal  carried  commendatory  letters  from  Governor- 
General  Blanco  to  the  Minister  of  War  and  to  the 
Minister  of  the  Colonies.  They  were  similar  in  strain 
and  recited  that :  "I  recommend  to  you  with  real  in- 
terest Dr.  Jose  Rizal,  who  leaves  for  the  Peninsula 
to  place  himself  at  the  disposal  of  the  Government  as 
volunteer  army  doctor  in  Cuba.  His  conduct  during 
the  four  years  he  has  been  in  exile  in  Dapitan  has 
been  exemplary,  and  he  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  more 
worthy  of  pardon  and  benevolence,  because  he  is  in 
no  way  associated  with  the  extravagant  attempts 
which  we  are  now  deploring,  neither  in  conspiracy 
nor  in  the  secret  societies  which  have  been  formed." 


THE  PATRIOT  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES.  167 

Had  he  wished,  Rizal  might  have  left  the  steamer  at 
Singapore  as  his  companion  and  fellow-patriot  Rojas 
did. 

Upon  his  arrival  at  Barcelona,  Rizal  was  arrested 
and  confined  in  the  fortress  of  Montjuich.  Charges 
had  been  formulated  against  him  by  his  relentless 
enemies,  the  friars,  and  cabled  to  the  authorities  in 
Spain.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1896  Rizal,  a  closely 
guarded  state  prisoner,  was  handed  over  to  the  Insular 
jurisdiction.  By  this  time  Blanco,  whose  humanity 
and  sense  of  justice  would  at  least  have  prevented 
the  judicial  murder  of  Rizal,  had  been  recalled  at  the 
behest  of  the  ecclesiastical  party.  Polavieja  was  at 
the  head  of  the  Insular  Government  and  the  country 
was  under  martial  law. 

Rizal  was  hastily  brought  before  a  court-martial 
on  the  charges  of  sedition  and  rebellion.  The  testi- 
mony adduced  by  the  prosecution  was  of  the  flimsiest 
character,  and  was  amply  refuted  by  Rizal,  who  con- 
ducted his  own  defense  with  ability  and  eloquence. 
Considering  the  fact  that  he  had  been  virtually  a 
state  prisoner  for  close  upon  five  years  and  that  it 
was  physically  impossible  for  him  to  have  taken  any 
active  part  in  the  rebellion,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how 
the  charges  could  have  been  substantiated.  Neverthe- 
less, Rizal  was  convicted  and  sentenced  to  be  shot. 
The  execution  was  carried  out  on  the  last  day  of  the 
year  1896. 

The  death  of  Rizal  was  one  of  several  similar  acts 


168  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

in  which  the  priests  allowed  their  hatred  to  get  the 
better  of  their  judgment,  and  brought  upon  themselves 
a  copious  harvest  of  vengeance.  The  affair  created  a 
more  profound  impression  upon  the  Filipinos  than 
even  the  execution  of  Doctor  Burgos. 

THE    TAGAL    REBELLION. 

In  August,  1896,  the  smouldering  fire  of  discon- 
tent burst  into  flame.  At  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of 
the  Tagal  Rebellion,  General  Blanco,  the  Governor- 
General,  had  but  fifteen  hundred  European  troops 
and  six  thousand  native  auxiliaries  at  his  command. 
Of  the  former  only  seven  hundred  were  in  Manila  and 
the  loyalty  of  the  latter  was  doubtful.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  General  was  forced  to  confine  his 
operations  to  the  defense  of  the  city,  around  which 
several  skirmishes  took  place  during  the  first  few 
months  following  the  inception  of  the  rebellion. 
Meanwhile  the  rebels  were  making  good  use  of  the 
respite.  They  established  their  headquarters  in 
Imus,  of  the  province  of  Cavite,  which  became  the 
most  important  center  of  the  rebellion. 

In  November  Blanco  had  received  from  Spain  ad- 
ditions to  his  force,  which  brought  the  European  con- 
tingent up  to  ten  thousand,  and  he  began  to  extend 
his  operations,  but  he  was  recalled  before  any  con- 
siderable headway  had  been  made  against  the  insur- 
rection. 

In    the    meantime    the    prisons    of    Manila    were 


THE  TAGAL  REBELLION  169 

crowded  with  natives  suspected  of  sympathy  with 
the  insurgents.  All  process  of  law  was  disregarded 
in  their  arrests,  and  their  disposition  by  court-martial 
was  equally  summary.  This  military  tribunal  is 
strongly  suspected  of  extortion  in  collusion  with  some 
of  the  civil  authorities.  Hundreds  of  the  wealthi- 
est natives  and  mestizos  of  Manila  were  brought  be- 
fore it  and  many  of  them  are  known  to  have  pur- 
chased their  release,  in  some  instances  only  to  go 
through  the  process  again  in  a  few  weeks'  time.  Ship- 
loads of  prisoners  were  consigned  to  the  Caroline 
Islands,  Fernando  Po,  Ceuta,  and  other  penal  colo- 
nies. The  Manila  volunteers  were  allowed  to  make 
domiciliary  searches  without  warrant  and  to  perpe- 
trate the  worst  kind  of  outrages  upon  native  resi- 
dents of  both  sexes.  Numbers  of  suspects  were  exe- 
cuted without  trial  and  not  a  few  were  tortured  so 
that  they  became  cripples  for  life.  In  fact,  the  acts 
of  officials  during  this  reign  of  terror  equaled  the 
deeds  of  the  Inquisition  at  its  worst. 

In  December,  Blanco  was  succeeded  by  General 
Polavieja,  who  brought  with  him  two  thousand  fresh 
troops  and  who  was  rapidly  reinforced  until  the  num- 
ber of  European  soldiers  under  his  command 
amounted  to  twenty-eight  thousand. 

Several  engagements  were  fought  with  the  result 
that  the  insurgent  forces  in  Cavite  were  dispersed 
after  fifty-two  days  of  hard  and  continuous  fighting. 
The  scene  of  the  insurrection  now  shifted  to  the  north 


170  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

of  Manila.  During  the  operations  in  Cavite  a  half- 
caste  named  Llaneras  had  raised  a  body  of  a  few 
thousand  in  the  provinces  of  Pampanga  and  Bulacan 
and  had  contrived  to  withstand  the  Spanish  force 
sent  against  him.  He  was  now  joined  by  Aguinaldo 
with  the  remnant  of  the  rebel  army  from  the  south. 
Immediately  following  the  junction  of  the  two  chiefs 
the  area  of  rebellion  spread  over  the  provinces  of 
Pangasinan,  Zambales,  Nueva  Ecija,  Tarlac,  and 
Ilocos.  Meanwhile  General  Polavieja  had  retired  on 
account  of  failing  health  and  his  place  was  taken 
by  General  Primo  de  Rivera. 

In  July,  1897,  the  rebels  circulated  a  proclamation 
in  which  was  set  forth  their  demands  as  follows: 

1.  Expulsion  of  the  friars  and  restitution  to  the 
townships   of  the  lands  which  the   friars  have   ap- 
propriated, dividing  incumbencies  held  by  them,  as 
well  as  the  episcopal  sees,  equally  between  Peninsular 
and  Insular  secular  priests. 

2.  Spain  must  concede  to  us,  as  she  has  to  Cuba, 
Parliamentary  representation,  freedom  of  the  press, 
toleration  of  all  religious  sects,  laws  common  with 
hers,  and  administrative  economic  autonomy. 

3.  Equality  in  treatment  and  pay  between  Peninsu- 
lar and  Insular  civil  servants. 

4.  Restitution  of   all  lands   appropriated  by  the 
friars  to  the  townships,  or  to  the  original  owners,  or, 
in  default  of  finding  such  owners,  the  State  is  to  put 
them  up  to  public  auction  in  small  lots  of  a  value 


THE  TAGAL  REBELLION.  171 

within  the  reach  of  all  and  payable  within  four 
years,  the  same  as  the  present  State  lands. 

5.  Abolition  of  the  Government  authorities'  powers 
to  banish  citizens,  as  well  as  all  unjust  measures 
against  Filipinos;  legal  equality  for  all  persons, 
whether  Peninsular  or  Insular  under  the  civic  as  well 
as  the  Penal  Code. 

The  conflict  dragged  on  without  prospect  of  ter- 
mination. Each  day  made  it  more  clear  to  the  Gov- 
ernor that,  even  if  the  rebels  failed  to  make  any 
headway,  they  could  at  least  hold  out  indefinitely.  In 
this  dilemma  General  Rivera  decided  to  resort  to 
diplomacy.  He  employed  a  Filipino,  named  Pedro 
Paterno,  to  open  negotiations  with  the  insurgent 
chiefs.  After  pourparlers  extending  over  three  or 
four  months  the  Pacto  de  Biac-na-bato  was  signed, 
December  14,  1897,  between  Emilio  Aguinaldo  and 
other  chiefs,  representing  the  rebels,  and  Pedro  A. 
Paterno,  as  attorney  for  the  Captain-General.  The 
terms  of  this  agreement  remain  in  dispute.  The 
insurgents,  whilst  charging  the  Spaniards  with  bad 
faith  in  the  matter,  never  published  anything  pur- 
porting to  be  a  literal  copy  of,  or  extract  from, 
the  compact.  The  Spaniards  have  always  claimed 
that  the  monetary  consideration  was  the  only  one 
conceded.  The  insurgents  have  persistently  main- 
tained that  reforms  and  a  general  amnesty  were  con- 
ditions of  their  surrender,  and  it  seems  highly  proba- 
ble that  the  latter  at  least  must  have  been  promised 


172  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

to  them.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  originals  of 
this  treaty  have  never  seen  the  light.  The  most  likely 
hypothesis  appears  to  be  that  the  Governor-General 
cunningly  inserted  a  clause  to  the  advantage  of  the 
rebel  leaders  which  they  dared  not  divulge  to  their 
followers,  and  that  the  Spaniards,  having  broken  their 
part  of  the  compact,  were  equally  concerned  in  keep- 
ing the  details  of  it  secret. 

The  insurgents  gave  up  their  arms  and  on  the  27th 
of  December,  1897,  Aguinaldo  and  thirty-four  other 
leaders  embarked  for  Hongkong.  One  instalment, 
representing  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  amount  of 
money  promised,  was  all  that  the  insurgent  leaders 
ever  received.  A  wholesale  persecution  of  those  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  rebellion  followed  the  surrender 
and  many  executions  took  place. 

WAR    WITH    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

War  was  declared  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States  on  the  23d  of  April,  1898.  In  Manila  prepara- 
tions were  made  in  feverish  haste  to  withstand  the 
American  fleet  which  was  known  to  be  at  Hongkong. 
The  defenses  of  the  city  were  in  a  lamentably  deficient 
state.  The  land  batteries  were  short  of  their  comple- 
ment of  guns  and  such  as  were  mounted  were  out- 
of-date  and  encrusted  with  rust.  Material  for  con- 
structing mines  was  lacking  and  the  torpedoes  on  hand 
proved  to  be  defective  and  useless.  Augusti,  who  had 
succeeded  Rivera  as  Governor-General,  issued  a  bom- 


WAR  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES.  173 

bastic  proclamation  in  which  he  characterized  the 
Americans  as  a  composition  of  "all  the  social  excres- 
cences/7 and  declared  their  squadron  to  be  "manned 
by  foreigners  possessing  neither  instruction  nor  dis- 
cipline." He  sought  to  lull  the  apprehensions  of 
the  citizens  with  this  assuring  declaration :  "The  ag- 
gressors shall  not  profane  the  tombs  of  your  fathers, 
they  shall  not  gratify  their  lustful  passions  at  the  cost 
of  your  wives'  and  daughters'  honor,  or  appropriate 
the  property  that  your  industry  has  accumulated  as  a 
provision  for  your  old  age.  No !  they  shall  not  per- 
petrate any  of  the  crimes  inspired  by  their  wickedness 
and  covetousness  because  your  valor  and  patriotism 
will  suffice  to  punish  and  abase  the  people  who  ex- 
terminated the  natives  of  North  America  instead  of 
bringing  to  them  the  life  of  civilization  and  progress." 
The  American  fleet  entered  Manila  Bay  at  three 
o'clock  on  the  morning  of  May  the  first,  and  found 
the  Spanish  squadron  ranged  round  the  point  of  the 
peninsula  of  Cavite.  The  Spaniards,  under  Admiral 
Montojo,  displayed  the  utmost  bravery,  but  they  were 
completely  outmatched,  and  by  eleven  o'clock  every 
one  of  their  vessels  .was  either  destroyed  or  disabled. 
Admiral  Dewey's  demand  for  the  surrender  of  Manila 
met  with  a  refusal,  but  Cavite  was  evacuated  and  the 
Americans  took  possession  of  the  arsenal  and  forts. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Spaniards  might  easily 
have  been  shelled  out  of  Manila,  but  in  that  case 
they  would  most  assuredly  have  been  massacred  by 


174  THE  PHILIPPINES 

the  insurgents,  large  bodies  of  whom  hemmed  the  city 
in  on  all  sides,  for  Admiral  Dewey  had  neither  troops 
to  hold  the  capital  nor  to  overpower  the  rebels  in  case 
of  a  conflict  with  them.  Throughout  the  succeeding 
operations  not  the  least  difficult  task  of  the  American 
commanders  lay  in  preventing  the  Spaniards  from 
falling  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies. 

Believing  that  Aguinaldo  might  be  usefully  em- 
ployed in  controlling  the  insurgents,  Admiral  Dewey 
had  brought  him  from  Hongkong  and  he,  with  other 
leaders,  was  now  landed  and  supplied  with  arms  and 
ammunition.  With  thirty  thousand  rebel  troops 
Aguinaldo  laid  siege  to  Manila,  whilst  the  American 
squadron  blockaded  the  port.  For  three  months,  and 
until  the  arrival  of  the  American  generals  with  rein- 
forcements, Aguinaldo's  force  contrived  to  repel  all 
sorties  from  Manila  and  to  cut  the  city  off  from  out- 
side communication.  In  the  provinces  the  Spaniards 
were  almost  everywhere  defeated  and  large  numbers 
were  taken  prisoner.  By  the  middle  of  June  two- 
thirds  of  Luzon  was  in  the  possession  of  the  rebels, 
and  on  the  18th  of  that  month  Aguinaldo  summoned 
deputies  to  a  congress  and  formed  what  was  called 
the  Revolutionary  Government.  This  body  admin- 
istered a  large  portion  of  the  island,  maintained  order, 
and  collected  taxes.  Upon  the  12th  of  August,  1898, 
the  Protocol  providing  for  the  appointment  of  com- 
missioners to  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
in  Washington.  Upon  the  night  of  the  same  date  the 


WAR  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES.  175 

Spaniards  made  an  attack  in  force  upon  the  American 
lines  without  the  city  and  some  hours  of  fierce  fight- 
ing ensued.  On  the  following  day  the  combined  land 
and  sea  forces  of  the  Americans,  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  insurgent  army,  made  a  vigorous  attack  upon 
the  city.  About  mid-day  Manila  surrendered  and 
terms  of  capitulation  were  negotiated  between  Gen- 
eral Greene  and  General  Jaudenes,  the  rhetorical 
Augusti  having  fled  aboard  a  German  cruiser  before 
the  cessation  of  fighting.  The  articles  of  capitula- 
tion included  the  surrender  of  the  Philippine  Archi- 
pelago. 

Previous  to  the  attack  upon  the  capital  the  Amer- 
ican commander  instructed  Aguinaldo  that  his  troops 
would  not  be  permitted  to  enter  the  city,  and  the 
prohibition  was  continued  in  force  after  Manila  fell. 
A  few  days  later  a  provisional  agreement  was  entered 
into,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  Americans  retained 
jurisdiction  over  Manila  and  the  surrounding  dis- 
tricts whilst  the  rest  of  the  island  remained  under 
the  control  of  the  Revolutionary  Government. 

Aguinaldo  selected  Malolos  for  the  temporary  cap- 
ital of  the  insurgent  government,  and  a  Congress 
convened  there  on  the  15th  of  September.  Pedro  A. 
Paterno  was  elected  President  and  Deputies  Legardo 
and  Ocampo  were  elected  Vice-President  and  Secre- 
tary respectively.  One  of  the  first  decrees  of  this 
Congress  imposed  compulsory  military  service  upon 
every  able-bodied  Filipino  over  the  age  of  eighteen. 


176  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Aguinaldo  was  retained  in  the  position  of  Generalis- 
simo with  a  salary  of  $25,000  and  an  allowance  of 
$50,000  for  expenses.  The  proceedings  of  this  Con- 
gress indicate  that  its  members  confidently  expected 
that  the  independence  of  the  Philippines  would  be 
a  provision  of  the  pending  treaty  of  peace,  or  follow 
their  cession  to  the  United  States. 

THE  TREATY  OF    PARIS. 

The  treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  States 
and  Spain  was  signed  at  Paris  by  the  respective 
commissioners  on  the  10th  day  of  December,  1898, 
and  ratified  by  their  governments  a  few  months  later. 
Spain  agreed  to  cede  to  the  United  States  the  Philip- 
pine Archipelago  in  consideration  of  receiving  $20,- 
000,000.  Article  8  of  the  Treaty  declares  that  "the 
abandonment  and  cession  stipulated  shall  in  no  way 
affect  the  property  and  rights  accorded  by  custom  or 
law  to  the  peaceful  holders  of  goods  of  any  sort 
in  the  provinces,  cities,  public  or  private  establish- 
ments, civil  or  ecclesiastical  corporations,  or  any  other 
collectively  which  has  any  legal  right  to  acquire  goods, 
or  rights  in  the  ceded  or  abandoned  territories,  and 
the  same  applies  to  the  rights  and  properties  of  indi- 
viduals of  every  nationality  whatsoever." 

Article  9  recites  that  "Spanish  subjects  born  in  the 
Peninsula  and  resident  in  the  territories,  the  sover- 
eignty of  which  Spain  abandons,  or  cedes,  may  remain 
in,  or  go  away  from,  those  territories  and  still  hold, 


THE  TREATY  OF  PARIS.  177 

in  either  case,  their  property  rights  as  well  as  the 
right  to  sell,  or  dispose  of,  the  real  estate,  or  its 
produce.  They  shall  also  have  the  right  to  follow 
their  trades,  or  professions,  subject  to  the  laws  affect- 
ing all  other  foreigners." 

It  is  easy  to  comprehend  the  grief  and  anger  witli 
which  the  Filipinos  learned  the  terms  of  the  Treaty 
of  Paris.  Apparently  the  friars  were  as  firmly 
entrenched  as  ever.  The  Americans  had  given  them 
a  title  to  the  lands  which  the  natives  protested  had 
been  stolen  from  their  rightful  owners.  Their  arch- 
enemy with  whom  they  had  struggled  for  many  years 
appeared  to  have  the  support  of  the  powerful  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  for  no  intimation  of 
the  ultimate  action  of  the  American  authorities  in 
the  disposition  of  the  friars'  lands  had  as  yet  been 
given. 

The  insurgent  leaders  were  thoroughly  disgusted 
with  the  turn  of  events,  and  it  must  be  confessed  that 
they  had  no  little  ground  for  their  discontent.  The 
money  which  they  had  received  from  the  Spanish 
Government  ($400,000)  as  a  condition  of  surrender 
in  1897,  had  been, carefully  husbanded  for  the  future 
struggle  that  they  anticipated  and  had  been  expended 
in  their  operations  supporting  the  American  invasion. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  someone,  who  they  had  reason 
to  suppose  was  authorized  to  speak  for  the  American 
Government,  had  assured  the  Junta  Patriotica  in 
Hongkong  that  they  might  look  for  the  independence 
12 


178  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

of  the  Philippines  to  follow  American  success  in 
wresting  the  islands  from  Spain.  The  expectations 
of  the  Filipinos  were  strengthened  by  Admiral 
Dewey's  action  in  bringing  Aguinaldo  and  his  lieu- 
tenants to  Manila  in  an  American  war  vessel;  in 
supplying  them  with  arms;  and  in  employing  them 
in  the  ensuing  campaign.  The  services  rendered  by 
the  insurgents  during  the  three  months  that  the  Amer- 
ican fleet  lay  in  Manila  Bay,  quite  unable  for  lack 
of  troops  to  take  advantage  of  the  naval  victory, 
should  not  be  lightly  estimated.  Even  after  the  ar- 
rival of  reinforcements  from  America,  the  revolution- 
ary forces  afforded  valuable  assistance  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  city  and  afterwards  in  holding  the  island 
and  maintaining  order. 

To  have  granted  independence  to  the  Philippines 
at  that  time  would  have  been  to  visit  the  people  with 
a  greater  misfortune  than  a  continuance  of  the  rule 
of  the  friars,  and  it  is  well  that  the  American  Gov- 
ernment did  not  entertain  either  idea.  But  it  can 
hardly  be  questioned  that  both  policy  and  justice  de- 
manded prompt  and  substantial  recognition  of  the 
services  of  the  leaders  in  the  Filipino  rebellion.  Had 
this  been  done  it  is  probable  that  Aguinaldo  and  his 
companions  could  have  been  induced  to  lay  down  their 
arms  and  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  American 
Government.  That  they  continued  the  contest  for 
the  possession  of  their  country — a  contest  in  which 
they  had  already  sacrificed  fifty  thousand  lives — is 


THE  TREATY  OF  PARIS.  179 

not  to  their  discredit.  Senator  Hoar,  addressing 
Congress  on  the  subject,  said:  "Mr.  President,  there 
is  one  mode  by  which  the  people  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  could  establish  the  truth  of  the  charges  as  to 
their  degradation  and  incapacity  for  self-government 
which  have  been  made  by  the  advocates  of  Imperalism 
in  this  debate,  and  that  mode  is  by  submitting  tamely 
and  without  resistance  to  the  United  States." 

There  had  been  serious  friction,  bordering  at  times 
upon  open  rupture,  between  the  American  and  in- 
surgent troops  from  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the 
former,  but  it  was  not  until  February,  1899,  that 
the  ill-advised  and  hopeless  armed  opposition  of  the 
Filipinos  to  the  United  States  Government  began.  It 
is  impossible  to  determine  the  responsibility  for  the 
immediate  outbreak.  Each  side  accused  the  other 
of  undue  precipitancy  and  aggravation,  but  the  ques- 
tion is  of  little  consequence. 

The  subjugation  of  the  insurrectos  was  accom- 
plished under  extreme  difficulties.  The  native  troops 
maintained  a  guerilla  war  for  years,  retreating  to 
the  mountains,  or  the  jungle,  when  pressed,  and  only 
attacking  in  overwhelming  numbers.  The  capture  of 
Aguinaldo  broke  the  back  of  the  resistance,  and  al- 
though a  few  armed  bodies  remained  at  large  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  Archipelago,  the  Philippine  Com- 
mission was  able  to  certify  on  September  the  llth, 
1902,  that  "The  recently  existing  insurrection  of 
the  Philippine  Islands  has  ceased  and  a  condition  of 


180  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

general  and  complete  peace  has  been  established 
therein."  At  this  point  it  may  be  well  to  sketch  in 
outline  the  system  of  administration  under  the  Span- 
iards. We  shall  thereby  gain  some  idea  of  the  task 
which  was  presented  to  the  American  Government 
upon  taking  over  the  islands,  the  extent  of  its  achieve- 
ment up  to  the  present,  and  the  difficulties  yet  to  be 
overcome. 

THE  FOKM   OF  SPANISH  ADMINISTRATION. 

The  supreme  head  of  the  Spanish  administration 
of  the  Philippines  was  the  governor-general.  The 
commission  of  Legaspi  authorized  him  to  exercise 
judicial  functions,  to  "hear,  examine,  and  decide  any 
civil,  or  criminal  suit,  and  to  administer  over  civil 
and  criminal  justice,  in  company  with  the  officers  of 
justice  who  may  be  appointed."  For  many  years 
the  judiciary  formed  a  part  of  the  executive  govern- 
ment and  always  exercised  considerable  influence 
upon  its  actions. 

The  governor-general  was  invested  with  despotic 
powers.  He  might  remove  any  official  at  will,  and 
expel  any  person  from  the  islands.  On  the  other 
hand,  unless  these  powers  were  exercised  in  accord- 
ance with  the  will  of  the  priests,  the  governor-gen- 
eral's tenure  of  office  was  likely  to  be  cut  short,  and 
so  if  he  endeavored  to  suppress  the  dishonesty  and 
malfeasance  of  the  civil  officials.  The  term  of  office 
of  the  governor-general  was  three  years,  with  a  salary 


THE  ENCOMENDEROS.  181 

of  $40,000  per  annum,  and  liberal  allowances.  This, 
like  all  other  appointments  in  the  Philippines,  was 
subject  to  wire-pulling  and  bribery  in  Madrid.  Dur- 
ing later  years  all  the  civil  posts  in  the  islands  were 
systematically  farmed  by  the  members  of  the  Cortes 
and  other  influential  persons  at  the  Spanish  capital. 

THE  ENCOMENDEROS. 

As  the  country  yielded  to  the  Spaniards  it  was 
divided  into  provinces  and  military  districts  and 
these  in  their  turn  into  encomiendas,  patterned  after 
the  repartimentos  of  Spanish  America.  The  holders 
of  these  sections  of  territory  collected  the  Govern- 
ment tribute  and  as  much  else  as  they  could  exact 
from  the  natives  on  their  own  account.  They  prac- 
tically held  the  tributes  in  slavery  and  subjected  them 
to  the  grossest  cruelties.  Bishop  Salazar  wrote  to 
the  King  in  1583  regarding  the  encomenderos,  "They 
collect  tribute  from  children,  old  men,  and  slaves, 
and  many  remain  unmarried  because  of  the  tribute, 
while  others  kill  their  children.  .  .  .  But  the 
end  is  not  here,  but  in  the  manner  of  collecting,  for, 
if  the  chief  does  not  give  them  as  much  gold  as  they 
demand,  or  does  not  pay  for  as  many  Indians  as 
they  say  there  are,  they  crucify  the  unfortunate  chief, 
or  put  his  head  in  the  stocks.  .  .  .  What  the 
encomendero  does  after  having  collected  his  tribute 
in  the  manner  stated  is  to  return  home  and  for  an- 
other year  he  neither  sees  nor  hears  of  them.  He 


182  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

takes  no  more  account  of  them  than  if  they  were  deer 
until  the  next  year,  when  the  same  thing  occurs." 
There  is  some  satisfaction  in  the  knowledge  that  sev- 
eral of  the  encomenderos  fell  victims  to  the  wrath  of 
the  miserable  tributos. 

THE   ALCALDES. 

The  encomenderos  were  succeeded  by  alcaldes, 
whose  rule  was  less  inhuman  only  because  greater 
restraint  was  placed  upon  them.  They  had  not,  like 
their  predecessors,  the  right  to  the  fruits  of  the  na- 
tives' toil,  but  they  enjoyed  the  "indulto  de  comercio" 
or  privilege  of  trading.  This  indulgence  was  never 
intended  to  act  as  a  restriction  upon  the  operations 
of  the  natives,  but  the  alcaldes  made  it  the  medium 
for  exercising  a  virtual  monopoly  and  forced  the  na- 
tives to  conduct  all  their  transactions  with  them. 

The  office  of  alcalde  carried  with  it  a  salary  of 
$300  a  year  and  upwards.  From  this  sum,  however, 
taxes  were  deducted  and  the  annual  fee  for  the  in- 
dulto, which  usually  amounted  to  nearly  as  much  as 
the  entire  salary.  Nevertheless  the  office  of  alcalde 
was  much  sought  after  and  high  prices  were  paid  for 
the  appointment.  Mazorca  stated,  in  1840,  that: 
" There  are  candidates  up  to  the  grade  of  Brigadier 
who  relinquish  a  $3,000  salary  to  pursue  their  hopes 
and  projects  in  Governorship."  The  alcaldes  often 
found  an  additional  source  of  profit  in  the  collection 
of  the  Royal  tribute.  Silver  being  scarce  in  the  in- 


THE  ALCALDES.  183 

terior  the  natives  were  frequently  obliged  to  make 
payment  in  grain,  or  other  produce.  This  the  alcalde 
accepted  at  an  arbitrary  appraisement  very  much  be- 
low the  actual  value  and  in  accounting  to  the  central 
authority  made  a  personal  profit  of  the  difference. 

These  men,  to  whose  hands  the  functions  of  gov- 
ernment and  the  administration  of  justice  were  en- 
trusted, were  generally  ignorant,  often  brutal,  and 
never  honest.  In  1810  Tomas  de  Comyn  had  the 
following  to  say  of  the  alcaldes:  "In  order  to  be  a 
Chief  of  a  Province  in  these  islands  no  training,  or 
knowledge,  or  special  services  are  necessary;  all  per- 
sons are  fit  and  admissible.  .  .  .£^It  is  quite  a 
common  thing  to  see  a  barber,  or  a  Governor's  lackey, 
a  sailor,  or  a  deserter,  suddenly  transformed  into 
an  alcalde,,  Administrator,  and  Captain  of  the  forces 
of  a  populous  province,  without  any  counsellor  but 
his  rude  understanding,  or  any  guide  but  his  pas- 
sions.""lff  .13V/V/ 

In  1844  a  Eoyal  Decree  prohibited  future  trading 
on  the  part  of  any  Government  officials  but  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  civil  rule  of  provinces  remained 
in  the  hands  of  Alcaldes-May  ores,  who  exercised  ex- 
ecutive and  judicial  functions.  The  situations  some- 
times arising  out  of  this  anomalous  condition  might 
have  furnished  material  for  the  libretto  of  a  comic 
opera.  The  Alcalde-Mayor  issued  an  order  in  his 
capacity  of  Governor.  A  protest  was  made  to  himself 
in  the  capacity  of  Judge.  The  Judge  supported  the 


184  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Governor,  and  an  appeal  was  taken  to  the  central 
authority  in  Manila.  The  central  authority  referred 
the  matter  back  to  the  Alcalde-Mayor  for  a  report 
upon  the  actions  of  the  Governor  and  the  Judge. 
The  only  result  of  this  circumlocutionary  proceeding 
was  to  put  the  composite  official  in  possession  of  a 
list  of  complainants  upon  whom  he  could  visit  his  dis- 
pleasure. 

In  1886,  a  much-needed  reform  was  effected  by 
the  appointment  of  Civil  Governors  and  the  restric- 
tion of  Alcaldes  to  judicial  duties.  Each  Governor 
was  provided  with  an  assistant,  who  was  styled  Secre- 
tary, and  whose  most  important  duty  was  to  act  as 
a  check  upon  his  superior. 

THE   PEOVINCIAL   GOVERNORS. 

The  Provincial  Governor  was  the  representative  of 
the  Governor-General;  whose  edicts  he  was  expected 
to  publish  and  enforce.  He  was  charged  with  the 
maintenance  of  order  and  the  control  and  direction  of 
the  Civil  Guard  and  local  constabulary.  He  was 
responsible  for  the  proper  performance  of  the  duties 
of  the  petty  municipal  authorities,  and  he  could  re- 
move them  at  discretion.  As  chief  of  the  police 
force,  it  was  his  duty  to  cause  the  arrest  of  suspicious 
persons  and  law-breakers,  but  he  was  bound  to  bring 
the  suspect,  or  offender,  before  the  judicial  authority 
within  three  days  of  his  seizure.  The  Governor  had 
the  powers  of  a  police  magistrate.  He  could  dispose 


THE  PROVINCIAL  GOVERNORS.  185 

of  minor  cases  and  might  impose  a  fine  not  to  exceed 
$60,  and  in  default  of  payment  he  might  order  the 
offender  to  undergo  imprisonment  not  to  exceed  thirty 
days. 

The  Governor  was  responsible  for  the  postal  serv- 
ice and  telegraph;  public  lands,  woods,  forests  and 
mines ;  education,  health,  charities,  and  prisons ;  pub- 
lic works,  and  the  collection  of  taxes ;  agriculture  and 
industry. 

The  Governor  was  not  permitted  to  have  any  hand 
in  the  disposition  of  public  funds.  His  provincial 
and  municipal  accounts  were  required  to  be  coun- 
tersigned by  his  Secretary,  who  prefixed  the  word 
"Intervine"  to  his  signature.  The  Governor  was  not 
allowed  any  of  the  percentages  which  the  Alcaldes- 
May  ores  formerly  enjoyed,  nor  any  emoluments  be- 
yond his  stipulated  salary. 

Under  these  conditions  the  Provincial  Governor  was 
a  great  improvement  over  the  Alcalde-Mayor,  but  it 
was  mainly  on  account  of  negative  qualities.  Few 
Governors  took  an  active  interest  in  the  betterment  of 
their  provinces,  and,  indeed,  their  scope  of  action 
was  greatly  restricted  by  circumstances.  In  the  first 
place,  the  Governor  found  that  peaceful  administra- 
tion, and  perhaps  the  retention  of  his  office,  de- 
pended upon  the  goodwill  of  the  friars  and  conformity 
with  their  wishes.  Loss  of  office  might  follow  a 
change  of  ministry,  the  death  or  downfall  of  a  patron, 
or  the  desire  of  some  influential  personage  to  make  a 


186  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

place  for  a  favorite.  With  such  uncertainty  as  to  the 
term  of  his  official  life  it  could  hardly  be  expected 
that  a  Governor  would  devote  himself  very  earnestly 
to  schemes  for  the  improvement  of  his  province.  He 
would  seldom  have  the  satisfaction  of  witnessing  the 
fruition  of  his  efforts,  or  even  the  assurance  that 
his  interrupted  work  would  be  carried  on  by  his  suc- 
cessor. As  has  been  said,  he  had  no  control  of 
the  disposition  of  public  revenues  raised  in  his  prov- 
ince, and  which  should,  in  large  part  at  least,  have 
been  expended  upon  public  works  within  the  dis- 
tricts from  which  they  were  derived.  All  such  moneys 
were,  however,  remitted  to  Manila,  and  by  the  central 
government  diverted  to  other  purposes,  whilst  the 
plans  and  estimates  of  provincial  officials  for  roads 
and  bridges  were  pigeon-holed.  If  a  bridge  broke 
down,  so  it  remained,  and  the  Government  even  made 
money  out  of  the  misfortune  of  the  community  by 
selling  the  right  to  establish  a  ferry.  '  There  was  in 
each  municipality  a  local  tax  termed  "Caja  de  Com- 
munidad"  a  sinking  fund,  contributed  by  the  peo- 
ple against  a  time  of  stress  and  need,  but  this  found 
its  way  to  Manila  and  was  misappropriated. 

Foreman  says  that  in  1887  the  parish  priest  of 
Banan,  Batangas  Province,  told  him  that  although 
there  must  have  been  $300,000  paid  into  this  fund 
up  to  the  year  1882  by  his  parish  alone,  yet  financial 
aid  was  refused  by  the  Government  during  the 
cholera  epidemic  of  that  year. 


THE  PROVINCIAL  GOVERNORS.  187 

To  quote  further  from  Foreman :  "The  'Tribunal/ 
which  served  the  double  purpose  of  Town  Hall  and 
Dak  Bungalow  for  wayfarers,  was  often  a  hut  of 
bamboo  and  palm  leaves,  whilst  others,  which  had  been 
decent  buildings  generations  gone  by,  lapsed  into  a 
wretched  state  of  dilapidation.  In  some  villages  there 
was  no  Tribunal  at  all,  and  the  official  business  had 
to  be  transacted  in  the  municipal  Governor's  house. 
I  first  visited  Calamba  (on  the  Laguna  de  Bay  shore) 
in  1880,  and  for  fourteen  years  to  my  knowledge  the 
headmen  had  to  meet  in  a  sugar-store  in  lieu  of  a 
Tribunal.  In  San  Jose  de  Buenavista,  the  capital  of 
Antique  Province,  the  Town  Hall  was  commenced  in 
good  style  and  left  half  finished  during  fifteen  years. 
Either  some  one  for  pity's  sake,  or  the  headmen  for 
their  own  convenience,  went  to  the  expense  of  thatch- 
ing over  half  the  unfinished  structure.  This  half  was 
therefore  saved  from  utter  ruin  while  all  but  the  stone 
walls  of  the  remainder  rotted  away.  So  it  continued 
until  1887,  when  the  Government  authorized  a  por- 
tion of  this  building  to  be  restored. 

"As  to  the  roads  connecting  the  villages,  quite 
twenty  per  cent,  of  them  serve  only  for  travelers  on 
foot,  on  horseback,  or  on  buffalo  back  at  any  time, 
and  in  the  wet  season  certainly  sixty  per  cent,  of 
all  the  Philippine  highways  are  in  too  bad  a  state  for 
any  kind  of  passenger  conveyance  to  pass  with  safety. 
In  the  wet  season  many  times  I  have  made  a  sea 
journey  in  a  prahu  simply  because  the  highroad  near 


188  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  coast  had  become  a  mud  track  for  want  of  mac- 
adamized stone  and  drainage,  and  only  serviceable  for 
transport  by  buffalo.  In  the  dry  season  the  sun 
mended  the  roads  and  the  traffic  over  the  baked  clods 
reduced  them  more  or  less  to  dust  so  that  vehicles 
qould  pass.  Private  property  owners  expended  much 
time  and  money  in  the  preservation  of  public  roads, 
although  a  curious  law  existed  prohibiting  repairs  to 
highways  by  non-official  persons. 

"Every  male  adult,  or  resident  (with  certain  ex- 
ceptions) had  to  give  the  State  fifteen  days'  labor 
per  annum  or  redeem  the  labor  by  payment.  Of 
course  thousands  of  the  most  needy  class  preferred 
to  give  their  fifteen  days.  This  labor  and  the  cash 
paid  by  those  who  redeemed  the  obligation  were  theo- 
retically supposed  to  be  employed  in  local  improve- 
ments. 

"The  Budget  for  1888  showed  only  the  sum  of 
$120,000  to  be  used  in  road-making  and  mending  in 
the  whole  Archipelago. 

"It  provided  for  a  Chief  Inspector  of  Public  Works 
with  a  salary  of  $6,500,  aided  by  a  staff  of  forty-eight 
technical  and  eighty-two  non-technical  subordinates. 

"As  a  matter  of  fact  the  Provincial  and  District 
.Governors  were  often  urged  by  their  Manila  chiefs 
not  to  encourage  the  employment  of  labor  for  local 
improvements,  but  to  press  the  laboring  classes  to  pay 
the  redemption  tax  to  swell  the  central  coffers,  re- 
gardless of  the  corresponding  misery  and  discomfort 


MUNICIPAL  OFFICIALS.  189 

and  loss  of  trade  in  the  interior.  But  labor  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Governor  was  not  alone  sufficient. 
There  was  no  fund  from  which  to  defray  the  cost  of 
materials;  or,  if  these  could  be  found  without  pay- 
ment, some  one  must  pay  for  the  transportation  by 
buffaloes  and  carts,  and  find  the  implements  for  the 
laborers'  use.  How  could  laborers'  hands  alone  re- 
pair a  bridge  which  had  rotted  away  ?  To  cut  a  log 
of  wood  for  the  public  service  would  have  necessitated 
communications  with  the  Inspection  of  Woods  and 
Forests  and  other  centres  and  many  months'  delay." 

MUNICIPAL     OFFICIALS. 

Each  township  had  its  principales,  or  headmen,  of 
whoiri  there  were  twelve,  elected  by  popular  vote. 
From  this  body  the  petty  local  officials  were  chosen ; 
namely,  the  Gobernadorcillo,  or  "Petty  Governor," 
and  his  lieutenants,  the  alguaciles,  or  constables,  and 
other  minor  officers.  For  the  maintenance  of  order, 
and  for  the  protection  of  the  town,  chiefly  against  la- 
drones,  there  was  a  body  of  local  police  called  cuadril- 
leros,  who  were  generally  armed  with  bolos  and  lances, 
but  in  the  more  important  centers  carried  firearms. 
The  Gobernadorcillos  were  responsible  to  the  Pro- 
vincial Governor  for  the  condition  of  affairs  in  their 
respective  towns  and  for  the  due  payment  of  taxes. 

The  immediate  collection  of  taxes  was  effected  by 
the  headman  of  each  barangay,  or  hamlet,  which 
was  the  municipal  unit.  The  barangay  consisted  of 


190  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

from  forty  to  fifty  families,  who  were  termed  sdcopes. 
For  the  payment  of  the  proper  taxes  of  his  sdcopes 
the  headman  was  held  responsible  and  a  great  deal  of 
latitude  was  permitted  in  the  methods  of  collection. 
The  son  of  the  Barangay  Chief  was  recognized  as 
his  assistant,  and  both  were  exempt  from  taxation 
as  remuneration  for  the  performance  of  their  duties. 
The  office  was  hereditary,  and  on  account  of  the 
unpleasant  nature  of  its  duties  and  the  penalties  at- 
tendant upon  failure,  was  seldom  desired,  but  it  could 
not  be  avoided,  No  excuse  was  admitted  for  delin- 
quency on  the  part  of  the  headsman.  His  goods  were 
liable  to  be  sold  to  make  up  a  shortage  in  his  returns, 
and  that  recourse  failing,  he  would  be  cast  into  prison. 

The  Gobernadorcillo  disposed  of  petty  disputes 
arising  in  his  town,  but  when  these  assumed  a  legal 
aspect  they  were  referred  to  the  local  Justice  of  the 
Peace,  who  was  directly  responsible  to  the  Provincial 
Judge. 

The  salary  of  a  Gobernadorcillo  was  $2  per  month, 
which,  of  course,  fell  very  short  of  the  actual  ex- 
penses which  he  incurred  in  the  performance  of 
his  duties,  so  that  he  was  often  forced  to  recoup 
himself  by  illegal  exactions  from  the  townspeople. 
The  office  carried  with  it  the  title  of  "Captain,"  and 
on  that  account  was  frequently  sought  by  wealthy 
natives  without  regard  to  any  profit  that  might  be  de- 
rived from  it. 

Under  this  system  of  administration  five  or  six 


MUNICIPAL  OFFICIALS.  191 

Spaniards  would  furnish  the  entire  complement  of 
European  civil  servants  of  a  province.  The  salaries 
attached  to  all  offices  were  very  small.  The  system 
was  therefore  economical  in  the  extreme,  but  the 
taxpayers  derived  no  benefit  from  that  circumstance. 
Every  official,  the  native  no  less  than  the  Spaniard, 
looked  upon  his  position  as  a  field  for  plunder.  The 
reform  of  1886  did  not  effect  any  improvement  in 
this  respect.  In  fact,  one  of  its  immediate  results 
was  to  increase  the  number  of  the  parasites  who  fas- 
tened upon  the  country  and  pilfered  the  funds  that 
should  have  been  applied  to  public  works.  Fre- 
quently officials  retired  to  Spain  with  accumulations 
far  in  excess  of  the  aggregate  of  their  salaries  for  the 
term  of  office,  and  this  despite  the  fact  that  in  most 
cases  they  paid  a  large  premium  for  the  appointment, 
or  remitted  a  considerable  proportion  of  its  emolu- 
ments to  the  patron  annually.  So  universal  was  the 
corruption  pervading  the  administration  that  it  came 
to  be  regarded  as  a  matter  of  course.  Foreman  re- 
lates that  he  "met  at  table  a  provincial  chief  judge, 
the  nephew  of  a  General,  and  other  persons,  who 
openly  discussed  the  value  of  the  different  Provincial 
Governments  (before  1884)  in  Luzon  Island  on  the 
basis  of  so  much  for  salary  and  so  much  for  fees  and 
'caidas/  "* 


*  Caidas,  literally  "droppings."  This  was  the  expressive 
term  employed  by  the  Spanish  officials  to  denote  what  we 
would  call  "rake-offs." 


192  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  office  of  Governor-General  was  not  *f ree  from 
the  taint.  Sawyer,  referring  to  what  is  practically 
a  proven  fact,  says:  "Weyler  was  said  to  have  pur- 
chased the  appointment  from  the  wife  of  a  great  min- 
ister too  honest  to  accept  bribes  himself,  and  the 
price  was  commonly  reported  to  have  been  $30,000 
paid  down  and  an  undertaking  to  pay  the  lady  an 
equal  sum  every  year  of  his  term  of  office."  Fore- 
man undoubtedly  refers  to  the  same  individual  when 
he  writes:  "A  General  who  has  quite  recently  made 
for  himself  a  world-wide  notoriety  for  alleged  cruelty 
in  another  Spanish  colony  enriched  himself  by  pecu- 
lation to  such  an  extent  that  he  was  at  his  wit's  ends 
how  to  remit  his  ill-gotten  gains  clandestinely. 
Finally  he  resolved  to  send  an  army  Captain  over  to 
Hongkong  with  $35,000,  with  which  to  purchase  a 
draft  on  Europe.  The  Captain  left,  but  he  never  re- 
turned." If  the  story  lacks  anything  of  truth  let 
us  hope  that  it  is  only  in  an  understatement  of  the 
sum  involved. 

Worse,  however,  than  the  corruption  that  character- 
ized the  civil  departments  of  the  administration  was 
the  shameful  venality  of  the  judicial  branch  from  the 
supreme  court  to  the  provincial  justice  of  the  peace. 

THE   AUDENCIA. 

The  Audencia  was  established  in  1584.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  president,  that  office  being  filled  by  the 
Governor-General;  three  auditors,  or  associate  jus- 


THE  AUDENCIA.  193 

tices;  a  fiscal,  or  prosecuting  attorney,  and  minor 
auxiliary  officials.  The  Audencia  had  jurisdiction  in 
all  cases  that  might  be  appealed  from  the  provincial 
authorities.  It  acted  as  a  court  of  first  instances 
only  in  "cases  which,  on  account  of  their  importance, 
the  amount  involved,  and  the  dignity  of  the  parties, 
might  be  tried  in  a  superior  court,  and  criminal 
cases  arising  in  the  place  where  the  court  might 
meet." 

There  was  110  appeal  from  the  findings  of  the 
Audencia,  except  in  civil  cases  of  sufficient  magni- 
tude to  justify  an  appeal  to  the  King. 

In  the  event  of  the  inability  of  the  governor  to  con- 
tinue his  duties,  the  Audencia  was  empowered  to  as- 
sume the  government.  The  Audencia  had  authority 
to  summon  citizens  of  the  islands  either  in  peace  or 
war.  The  Audencia  also  had  a  certain  degree  of 
jurisdiction  in  matters  ecclesiastical.  The  duties  and 
functions  of  this  body  were  multiplex  and  various, 
being  judicial,  legislative,  and  administrative  in 
character. 

The  Audencia  soon  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
priests,  and  their  representations  to  the  King  resulted 
in  the  abolition  of  the  body  in  1589.  It  was,  how- 
ever, re-established  in  1598,  and  in  1776  its  personnel 
was  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  several  members. 
Previous  to  1840  the  Audencia  had  discretionary 
power  over  the  retention  and  removal  of  judges  and 
justices,  thus  subjecting  them  to  an  altogether  unde- 

13 


194  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

sirable  influence.     In  that  year  a  royal  decree  consid- 
erably curtailed  that  power. 

From  time  to  time  there  have  been  changes  in  the 
composition  and  functions  of  the  Audencia  which  it  is 
not  necessary  to  consider. 

INADEQUATE    REFORMS. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  alcaldes-may  ores,  the 
governor-judges  of  provinces.  A  royal  decree  of 
1844  instituted  a  reform  in  the  qualification  and 
status  of  these  officials.  From  that  time  the  alcaldes 
were  divided  into  three  classes.  Three  years'  service 
in  each  category  was  required  for  promotion  to  the 
next,  and  members  of  the  highest  grade  were  eligible 
for  appointment  to  the  post  of  justice.  It  was  pro- 
vided that  no  person  might  be  made  alcalde  unless 
he  had  practiced  law  for  ten  years,  or  had  held  an 
office  for  which  a  similar  qualification  was  required. 

By  the  royal  decree  of  1860  the  composite  func- 
tions which  had  been  performed  by  the  alcaldes- 
mayores  were  separated,  and  thereafter  their  author- 
ity was  restricted  to  judicial  matters.  All  the  ordi- 
nary jurisdiction  and  functions  of  a  judge  of  first 
instance  devolved  upon  an  alcalde.  Some  governors 
continued  to  exercise  similar  functions.  Courts  of 
first  instance,  and  governors  exercising  the  functions 
of  such,  took  cognizance  of  all  criminal  and  civil 
cases  arising  within  their  territories,  except  such  as 
came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  au- 


THE  JUDICIAL  SYSTEM.  195 

thorities,  or  other  special  courts,  and  the  audencias. 
They  gave  judgment  in  all  civil  cases  in  which  the 
interest  involved  exceeded  1,000  pesetas. 

THE   JUDICIAL  SYSTEM. 

A  royal  decree  of  1870  divided  the  provinces  for 
the  purpose  of  the  administration  of  justice  into 
judicial  and  municipal  districts.  Each  district  was 
given  an  audencia,  each  judicial  district  a  court  of 
first  instance,  and  each  municipal  district  a  justice  of 
the  peace.  The  positions  of  judges  were  given  to 
lawyers,  or  persons  who  had  some  professional,  or 
academic  title,  or  to  those  "whose  position  and  circum- 
stances warranted"  the  appointment. 

As  a  rule,  down  to  the  end  of  the  Spanish  sover- 
eignty, the  judges  of  the  courts  were  Spaniards,  and 
the  entire  judicial  system,  including  the  codes  of  civil 
and  criminal  law,  followed  closely,  if  not  literally, 
the  forms  observed  in  Spain.  These  were  charac- 
terized by  many  proceedings  calculated  to  prolong 
litigation  indefinitely,  to  add  greatly  to  the  expense 
of  lawsuits,  to  keep  prisoners  in  confinement  for  long 
periods,  and  to  prevent  the  impartial  and  speedy 
administration  of  justice. 

Among  other  causes  which  were  calculated  to  aug- 
ment the  troubles  and  expenses  of  all  litigants  was 
the  ignorance  of  the  alcaldes-may  ores,  and  of  many 
of  the  judges  of  first  instance,  of  the  law  and  the 
proper  mode  of  procedure,  as  these  officials  were  ap- 


196  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

pointed  as  a  rule  for  political  reasons,  or  for  almost 
any  reason  but  proficiency,  until  after  the  separation 
of  judicial  and  executive  functions  as  already  set 
forth.  Again,  the  judges  of  first,  instance  and  fiscales 
had  very  small  salaries,  and  municipal  judges,  and 
the  clerks,  and  secretaries,  of  the  courts  had  none 
at  all,  being  dependent  for  remuneration  upon  official 
fees  and  such  additional  compensation  as  the  liti- 
gants were  willing  and  able  to  pay.  The  result  was 
a  great  deal  of  corruption  and  extortion,  and,  taken 
in  connection  with  the  many  legal  obstructions  always 
at  hand  and  always  resorted  to  by  the  dishonest  and 
unscrupulous,  made  an  appeal  for  redress  to  the 
courts  so  expensive  as  to  be  entirely  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  average  Filipino.  Sawyer,  whose  opportuni- 
ties for  experience  were  exceptional,  compares  the 
alcaldes'  courts  to  those  of  the  Chinese  Yamens,  and 
goes  on  to  say  that  "bad  as  the  alcaldes'  courts  were,  I 
think  that  the  culminating  point  of  corruption  was  the 
Audencia  of  Manila.  Escribano,  abogado,  juez, 
auditor,  fiscal,  vied  with  each  other  in  showing  that 
to  them  honor  and  dignity  were  but  empty  words. 
.  .  .  The  records  of  these  courts  from  the  earliest 
times  is  one  of  long-continued  infamy."  The  venality 
of  the  courts  and  their  tortuous  methods  of  procedure 
were  only  equaled  by  their  tardiness  of  action.  Saw- 
yer and  Foreman  each  cite  instances  of  deferred  jus- 
tice which  came  under  their  personal  observation  and 
which  it  is  safe  to  assert  could  not  have  occurred 
under  any  other  civilized  government  in  the  world. 


TARDINESS  OF  LEGAL  PROCESSES.     197 


THE  TARDINESS  OF  LEGAL  PROCESSES. 

In  1888,  Juan  de  la  Cruz,  a  Filipino,  was  arrested 
upon  a  charge  of  murder  and  lodged  in  Cavite  jail. 
Direct  evidence  against  him  was  not  forthcoming, 
although  circumstances  pointed  strongly  to  his  guilt. 
Witnesses  were  examined  and  their  depositions  taken, 
but  the  prisoner  was  not  brought  before  the  court.  So 
months  and  years  passed  away  and  still  Juan  con- 
tinued in  prison.  "Judges  came  and  judges  went, 
but  the  trial  came  no  nearer.  Year  after  year  a  judge 
of  the  Audencia  came  in  state  to  inspect  the  prisoners 
and  year  after  year  Juan  was  set  down  as  await- 
ing his  trial."  Meanwhile  some  of  the  witnesses 
had  left  the  islands  and  one,  at  least,  was  dead. 
In  1896  a  Scotch  engineer,  who  had  not  been  in 
the  Philippines  at  the  time  the  crime  was  com- 
mitted, was  cited  by  a  judge  and  asked  if  he  could 
identify  the  prisoner,  ten  years  after  his  arrest. 
Juan  de  la  Cruz  was  never  tried.  He  may  have  died 
like  many  another  prisoner  awaiting  judgment,  or 
he  may  have  been  released  when  the  rebels  occupied 
Cavite. 

In  1884,  a  band  of  pirates  raided  the  plantation 
of  an  Englishman  in  the  province  of  Tayabas  and 
committed  several  murders.  Twenty-six  of  their 
number  were  captured  and  lodged  in  jail.  To  quote 
from  Sawyer,  "Year  after  year  passed,  still  they  re- 
mained in  prison ;  judges  came,  stayed  their  term, 


198  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

were  promoted,  and  went,  but  still  these  men  were 
never  sentenced.  In  1889  I  visited  Laguimanoc, 
.  .  .  this  was  five  years  after  the  date  of  the  mur- 
ders; some  of  the  prisoners  had  died  in  prison,  the 
others  were  awaiting  their  sentence.  ...  A  year 
later  I  again  visited  Laguimanoc,  but  the  trial  of  the 
prisoners  was  no  further  advanced.  No  less  than 
nine  of  them  died  in  prison;  still  no  sentence  was 
pronounced.  ...  A  few  years  ago  .  .  .  the 
surviving  prisoners  were  pardoned  by  the  Queen  Re- 
gent, on  the  occasion  of  the  young  King's  birthday." 

Foreman  says :  "  .  .  .  Whoever  might  be  the 
legal  adviser  retained,  a  criminal,  or  civil,  suit  in  the 
Philippines  was  one  of  the  worst  calamities  that  could 
befall  a  man.  Between  notaries,  procurators,  so- 
licitors, barristers,  and  the  sluggish  process  of  the 
courts,  a  litigant  was  fleeced  of  his  money,  often  wor- 
ried into  a  bad  state  of  health,  and  kept  in  horrible 
suspense  and  doubt  for  years.  When  judgment  was 
given  it  was  as  hard  to  get  it  executed  as  it  was  to 
win  the  case.  Even  then,  when  the  question  at  issue 
was  supposed  to  be  settled,  a  defect  in  the  sentence 
could  always  be  concocted  to  reopen  the  whole  affair. 
If  a  case  had  been  tried  and  judgment  given  under 
the  Civil  Code  a  way  was  often  found  to  convert  it 
into  a  criminal  case,  and  when  apparently  settled 
under  the  Criminal  Code  a  flaw  could  be  discovered, 
under  the  Laws  of  the  Indies,  or  the  Siete  Partidas, 
or  the  Roman  Law,  or  the  Novisima  Recopilacion,  or 


TARDINESS  OF  LEGAL  PROCESSES.  199 

the  Antiguos  fueros,  Decrees,  Royal  Orders,  Orde- 
nanzas  de  buen  Gobierno,  and  so  forth,  by  which  the 
case  could  be  reopened." 

Foreman  mentions  the  celebrated  case  of  Jurado 
and  Company  versus  the  Hongkong  and  Shanghai 
Banking  Corporation,  as  an  illustration  of  the  delays 
and  uncertainties  attendant  upon  litigation  in  the 
civil  courts.  Suit  was  entered  in  the  year  1884. 

"The  Bank  had  agreed  to  make  advances  on  goods 
to  be  imported  by  the  firm  in  exchange  for  the  firm's 
acceptance.  ...  In  due  course  the  Bank  had 
reason  to  doubt  the  genuineness  of  certain  documents. 
Mr.  Jurado  was  imprisoned,  but  shortly  released  on 
bail.  He  was  dismissed  from  his  official  post  of  sec- 
ond Chief  of  Telegraphs,  worth  $4,000  a  year.  Goods 
as  they  arrived  for  his  firm,  were  seized  and  stored 
pending  litigation,  and  deteriorated  to  only  a  fraction 
of  their  original  worth.  His  firm  was  forced  by 
these  circumstances  into  liquidation  and  Jurado  sued 
the  Bank  for  damages.  The  case  was  open  for  sev- 
eral years,  during  which  time  the  Bank  coffers  were 
once  sealed  by  judicial  warrant,  a  sum  of  cash  was 
actually  transported  from  the  Bank  premises,  the 
Bank  manager  was  nominally  arrested,  but  really  a 
prisoner  on  parole  at  his  house.  Several  sentences 
of  the  court  were  given  in  favor  of  each  party.  Years 
after  this  they  were  all  quashed  on  appeal  to  Madrid. 
Mr.  Jurado  went  to  Spain  to  fight  his  case.  In  1891 
I  accidentally  met  him  and  his  brother  (a  lawyer)  in 


200  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  street  in  Madrid.  The  brother  told  me  the  claim 
against  the  Bank  then  amounted  to  $935,000,  and 
judgment  for  that  sum  would  be  given  in  a  fortnight 
thence.  Still  years  after  that,  when  I  was  again  in 
Manila,  the  case  was  yet  pending  and  another  on- 
slaught was  made  on  the  Bank.  The  Court  called  on 
the  manager  to  deliver  up  the  funds  of  the  Bank.  On 
his  refusal  to  do  so  a  mechanic  was  sent  there  to  open 
the  safes.  This  man  labored  in  vain  for  a  week. 
.  .  .  At  one  stage  of  the  proceedings  the  Bank 
especially  retained  a  reputed  Spanish  lawyer,  who 
went  to  Madrid  to  push  the  case.  Later  on  a  British 
Q.  C.  was  sent  over  to  Manila  from  Hongkong  to  ad- 
vise the  Bank.  The  Prime  Minister  was  appealed  to ; 
the  good  offices  of  our  Ambassador  in  Madrid  were 
solicited.  For  a  long  time  the  Bank  was  placed  in  a 
most  awkward  legal  dilemma.  The  other  side  con- 
tended that  the  Bank  could  not  be  heard,  or  appear 
by  itself,  or  by  proxy,  on  the  ground  that  under  its 
own  charter  it  had  no  right  to  be  established  in 
Manila  at  all,  etc.  Half  a  dozen  times  over  the  case 
was  supposed  to  be  finally  settled,  but  reopened  again. 
Happily  it  may  now  (1899)  be  regarded  as  closed  for- 
ever." 

It  appears  that  after  all  the  futile  litigation  this 
case  was  finally  settled  out  of  court. 


AMERICAN  ADMINISTRATION. 


V. 

AMERICAN   ADMINISTRATION. 

The  Central  Government  and  Legislative  Authority— Pro- 
vincial and  Municipal  Governments — Administration  of 
Justice — Civil  Service  System — The  Education  of  the 
Filipinos — Means  of  Communication — Foreign  Commerce 
— Sources  of  Revenue — Navigation,  Health,  etc. — Manila 
—Bonded  Indebtedness — The  Census  of  the  Philippine 
Islands — A  Model  Proclamation — American  Census  Meth- 
ods Followed — Novel  Experiences  of  Census  Agents — 
Great  Scope  of  the  Census. 

"The  Philippines  are  ours,  not  to  exploit,  but  to 
develop,  to  civilize,  to  educate,  to  train  in  the  science 
of  self-government.  This  is  the  path  of  duty  which 
we  must  follow,  or  be  recreant  to  a  mighty  trust  com- 
mitted to  us. 

"The  question  is  not  will  it  pay,  but  rather  will  we 
do  what  is  right." 

In  these  noble  sentiments  President  McKinley 
gave  expression  to  the  policy  of  the  American  Gov- 
ernment toward  the  Philippines  and  their  people. 
The  high  standard  of  conduct  set  by  this  platform 
has  continued  to  characterize  our  rule  in  the  Archi- 
pelago, and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  it  will  ever  do  so. 

Even  at  the  best  period  of  Spanish  sovereignty  the 
political  and  economic  condition  of  the  islands  af- 
forded but  a  poor  basis  for  the  acquirement  of 

(203) 


204  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

enlightened  ideas  upon  government.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  had  the  Filipinos  secured  their 
independence  they  would  not,  in  the  course  of  a  long 
time,  if  ever,  have  brought  their  country  to  the  state 
of  reformation  and  advancement  which  has  already 
been  besto\ved  upon  it  under  American  administra- 
tion. Furthermore,  it  is  unquestionable  that  the  Fili- 
pinos would  have  been  content  with  a  much  less  de- 
gree of  liberty  and  beneficent  action  than  that  which 
they  have  experienced. 

The  most  severe  indictment  of  the  American  Gov- 
ernment by  foreign  observers  rests  upon  the  asser- 
tion that  they  have  granted  to  the  Filipinos  more 
extensive  freedom  than  they  are  capable  of  exercis- 
ing with  good  effect;  that  the  policy  of  the  Philip- 
pines for  the  Filipinos  is  founded  upon  an  "impossible 
and  quixotic  theory" ;  and  that  the  scheme  of  placing 
the  "brown  brother"  upon  a  political  equality  with 
the  white  man  is  ill-advised  and  bound  to  result 
disastrously. 

Whether  these  are  errors  time  alone  can  tell,  but 
at  worst  they  will  prove  to  have  been  the  outcome 
of  benevolent  mis  judgment.  Better  a  thousand  times 
that  we  should  be  convicted  of  over-indulgence  in  our 
dealings  with  the  natives  than  that  an  accusation  of 
oppression,  or  unfairness,  should  be  established 
against  us.  One  thing  is  beyond  dispute,  and  that  is, 
that  if  the  Filipinos  should  display  ineptness  under 
the  present  conditions  of  American  guidance  and  con- 


INSULAR  ADMINISTRATION.  205 

trol  their  incapacity  for  self-government  will  be  abso- 
lutely proved. 

By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  which  went 
into  effect  March  7,  1899,  the  Philippine  Islands  be- 
came a  possession  of  the  United  States.  The  Taft 
Commission  was  appointed  by  President  McKinley, 
in  March,  1900,  from  which  time  the  civil  adminis- 
tration of  the  territory  dates. 

Let  us  see  what  has  been  done  for  the  islands  and 
their  inhabitants  in  these  five  years  of  American 
rule  :* 

"Peace  has  been  restored  to  the  islands,  and  in  a 
greater  degree  and  over  a  larger  area  than  at  any 
period  during  the  centuries  the  Archipelago  was 
subject  to  the  sovereignty  of  Spain." 

THE   CENTRAL  GOVERNMENT  AND  LEGISLATIVE 
AUTHORITY. 

During  the  term  of  military  administration  not  a 
little  was  accomplished  in  preparation  for  organizing 
and  establishing  civil  government.  The  first  efforts 
of  the  Taft  Commission  were  directed  toward  perfect- 
ing and  extending  this  work  under  instructions  from 
the  President  contained  in  a  document  dated  April  7, 
1900.  This  state  paper,  which  was  prepared  by  Hon. 
Elihu  Root,  as  Secretary  of  War,  has  been  character- 


*  The  following  statements  are  a  resume  of  a  Senate  Doc- 
ument (No.  304,  Fifty-eighth  Congress),  printed  from  a 
report  of  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  dated  1904. 


206  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ized  by  eminent  authorities  as  "the  most  nearly  per- 
fect example  of  organic  law,  jurisprudence,  guarding 
of  rights,  distribution  of  powers,  administrative  pro- 
visions, checks  and  balances,  civilization  ever  beheld 
in  a  single  document."  It  was  a  constitution,  a  code 
judicial,  a  system  of  laws  ready  made,  statutes  ad- 
ministrative, covering  all  the  activities  of  a  nation 
and  meeting  wants  and  solving  problems  innumerable. 
It  was  a  masterly  summing  up  of  the  governing  ex- 
perience of  the  self-governing  people  of  the  Avorld, 
adapted  to,  and  especially  for,  effective  work  in  a  given 
field.  This  "Magna  Charta"  of  the  Philippines  has 
furnished  the  groundwork  for  a  civic  machinery 
which,  after  an  amazingly  brief  constructive  period, 
is  moving  so  smoothly  and  effectively  as  to  excite  the 
wonder  and  admiration  of  all  who  are  acquainted 
with  it.  The  first  step  in  the  process  was  the  separa- 
tion of  the  various  functions  of  government,  pre- 
viously centred  in  the  military  authority.  To  the 
latter  was  continued,  for  the  time  being,  the  executive 
powers;  the  legislative  powers  were  conferred  upon 
the  Commission,  and  the  judicial  powers  were  trans- 
ferred to  courts  created  by  the  action  of  the  Commis- 
sion. 

The  scope  of  the  legislative  authority  conferred 
upon  the  Commission  was  defined  in  the  instructions 
as  follows:  "Exercise  of  this  legislative  authority 
will  include  the  making  of  rules  and  orders,  having 
the  effect  of  law,  for  the  raising  of  revenue  by  taxes, 


INSULAR  ADMINISTRATION.  207 

customs,  and  duties,  and  imposts;  the  appropriation 
and  expenditure  of  public  funds  of  the  islands;  the 
establishment  of  an  educational  system  throughout 
the  islands;  the  establishment  of  a  system  to  secure 
an  efficient  civil  service;  the  organization  and  estab- 
lishment of  courts;  the  organization  and  establish- 
ment of  municipal  and  departmental  governments, 
and  all  other  matters  of  a  civil  nature  for  which  the 
military  governor  is  now  competent  to  provide  by 
rules  or  orders  of  a  legislative  character." 

From  the  outset  the  legislative  sessions  of  the  Com- 
mission have  been  public,  and  their  enactments  have 
been  printed  in  the  form  of  bills.  Matters  of  general 
public  interest  have  been  discussed  by  committees 
before  which  natives  have  been  called  to  express 
their  views.  Ordinary  legislative  opportunities  for 
amendment  have  been  afforded  and  bills  and  amend- 
ments have  been  publicly  debated  and  voted  upon,  and 
when  passed  have  had  the  force  and  effect  of  statutes. 

During  the  year  following  its  inception,  the  Com- 
mission enacted  263  statutes,  every  one  of  which  re- 
ceived the  approval  of  Congress. 

In  1901  a  further  extension  of  civil  government 
was  effected  by  the  transfer  to  the  Commission  of 
the  executive  authority  over  all  the  pacified  prov- 
inces of  the  islands.  The  Hon.  William  H.  Taft 
was  appointed  Governor,  and  separate  executive  de- 
partments were  created  and  assigned  to  members  of 
the  Commission  as  follows :  Department  of  the  In- 


208  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

terior,  Dean  C.  Worcester ;  Department  of  Commerce 
and  Police,  Luke  E.  Wright ;  Department  of  Finance 
and  Justice,  Henry  C.  Ide ;  Department  of  Public  In- 
struction, Bernard  Moses. 

At  the  same  time,  by  appointment  of  the  President, 
three  distinguished  Filipinos  were  added  to  the  mem- 
bership of  the  Commission,  namely,  T.  H.  Pardo 
de  Tavera,  Benito  Legarda  and  Jose  Luzuriaga. 

The  administrative  duties  of  the  government  are 
distributed  in  the  following  apportionment : 

The  Department  of  the  Interior  controls  bureaus 
of  health,  forestry,  mining,  agriculture,  fisheries, 
weather,  public  lands,  ethnology,  patents  and  copy- 
rights, quarantine  service,  government  laboratories, 
and  the  marine-hospital  corps. 

The  Department  of  Commerce  and  Police  embraces 
bureaus  of  inland  and  inter-island  transportation, 
post-offices,  telegraphs,  coast  and  geodetic  survey,  en- 
gineering and  construction  of  public  works,  other 
than  public  buildings,  insular  constabulary,  prisons, 
light-houses,  and  all  corporations,  except  banking. 

The  Department  of  Finance  and  Justice  directs 
the  bureaus  of  the  insular  treasury,  the  insular  audi- 
tor, customs  and  immigration,  internal  revenue,  cold- 
storage  and  ice-plant,  banks,  banking,  coinage  and 
currency,  and  the  bureau  of  justice. 

The  Department  of  Public  Instruction  includes 
the  bureaus  of  public  instruction,  public  charities, 
public  libraries  and  museums,  statistics,  public  rec- 


INSULAR  ADMINISTRATION.  209 

ords,  government  printing,  architecture,  and  construc- 
tion of  public  buildings. 

The  powers  of  the  judicial  branch  of  the  govern- 
ment are  exercised  by  the  Supreme  Court,  composed 
of  seven  members,  appointed  by  the  President,  three 
of  whom  are  Filipinos.  All  other  judicial  positions 
are  filled  by  appointees  of  the  Commission.  At  pres- 
ent fifteen  Americans  and  six  natives  are  judges  of 
the  courts  of  first  instance.  Practically  all  the  judges 
of  the  minor  courts  are  natives. 

Congress  has  vested  in  the  government  of  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands  authority  to  exercise  certain  powers  of 
sovereignty  never  before  conferred  upon  any  portion 
of  the  territory  of  the  United  States  for  the  exclusive 
use  and  benefit  of  that  territory.  The  Philippine 
government  is  authorized  to  impose  duties  upon  goods 
coming  to  the  islands  from  ports  of  the  United  States ; 
to  issue  its  own  distinctive  currency  and  assume  direc- 
tion, and  control  of  its  postal  service.  Furthermore, 
Congress  has  conveyed  to  the  government  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  all  the  public  property,  and  the 
rights  pertaining  thereto,  which  passed  from  the 
crown  of  Spain  to  the  United  States  of  America. 

Following  an  election  to  be  held  April,  1906,  the 
legislative  power  will  become  vested  in  a  legislature 
consisting  of  two  houses,  to  wit :  The  Philippine  Com- 
mission and  the  Philippine  Assembly,  the  members 
of  the  latter  to  be  elected  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
islands. 

14 


210  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

Pursuing  the  policy  laid  down  in  the  instructions 
of  the  President,  the  Commission  passed  a  general 
act  for  the  organization  of  provincial  governments. 
The  municipality  was  made  the  political  unit,  and  the 
entire  territory  of  the  islands  is  divided  into  munici- 
palities very  similar  to  the  townships  in  America. 
Up  to  the  present  the  system  has  been  applied  to  the 
thirty-four  Christian  provinces,  except  that  the  city 
of  Manila  is  incorporated  under  a  special  charter. 
The  provincial  and  municipal  officials  are  elected  by 
popular  vote,  exercised  under  liberal  suffrage  regula- 
tions. 

PROVINCIAL  AND  MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENTS. 

The  administration  of  each  municipality  is  com- 
posed of  a  president,  vice-president  and  a  municipal 
council,  chosen  by  the  qualified  electors  of  the  munici- 
pality, to  serve  for  two  years.  The  franchise  is  ex- 
tended to  those  who  (a)  prior  to  August  13,  1898, 
held  certain  offices  under  the  Spanish  Crown;  those 
who  (&)  own  real  property  to  the  value  of  500  pesos 
(a  peso  is  now  equivalent  to  fifty  cents  American 
money),  or  who  pay  annual  taxes  of  thirty  or  more 
pesos;  and  those  who  (c)  speak,  read,  and  write  Eng- 
lish or  Spanish. 

The  municipal  government  of  the  city  of  Manila 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  city  of  Washington,  but 
whilst  the  Federal  Government  pays  one-half  of  the 
expenses  in  the  latter  case,  in  the  former  the  con- 


PROVINCIAL  GOVERNMENTS.  211 

tribution  of  the  General  Government  is  no  more 
than  three-tenths.  The  Municipal  Board  consists 
of  three  members  (one  of  whom  must  be  a  Fili- 
pino) appointed  by  the  Governor,  with  the  approval 
of  the  Commission.  There  is  also  an  Advisory 
Board,  consisting  of  one  member  (appointed  by  the 
Governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  Commission)  for 
each  of  the  eleven  districts  of  the  city.  The  Advisory 
Board  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  investigating  the 
special  needs  of  the  municipality  and  its  citizens,  and 
of  making  such  suggestions  to  the  Municipal  Board 
as  it  may  deem  necessary.  All  important  matters  of 
municipal  legislation  must  be  submitted  to  the  former 
body  before  being  acted  upon. 

Under  the  general  provincial  law  providing  for  the 
aggregation  of  several  municipalities  in  larger  admin- 
istrative divisions,  the  thirty-four  Christian  provinces 
were  organized.  The  provincial  government  consists 
of  five  officers  for  each  province  (except  that  in  some 
cases  the  offices  of  treasurer  and  supervisor  are  com- 
bined), namely,  governor,  treasurer,  supervisor,  secre- 
tary and  fiscal,  or  prosecuting-attorney ;  of  these,  the 
first  three  form  the  governing  board.  The  functions 
of  the  provincial  government  include  the  collection  of 
taxes,  the  construction  of  roads,  bridges,  and  public 
buildings,  and  the  supervision  of  municipal  officers. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  provincial  governor  to  make  visits 
twice  a  year  to  each  of  the  towns  in  his  province.  He 
is  responsible  for  the  proper  conduct  of  the  municipal 
administrations,  and  he  may  remove  any  municipal 


212  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

officer  for  cause.  The  provincial  treasurer  collects 
all  the  taxes,  remits  those  due  to  the  town  to  the 
municipal  treasurer,  and  audits  the  accounts  of  that 
official.  The  supervisor,  who  must  be  a  civil  en- 
gineer, is  charged  with  the  execution  of  all  public 
works  and  the  supervision  of  them.  The  fiscal  acts 
as  counsel  for  the  governing  board  and  for  each  of 
the  municipalities  in  the  province.  The  provincial 
governor  is  elected  biennially  by  a  convention  com- 
posed of  the  counsellors  of  the  municipalities  in  the 
province.  The  positions  of  treasurer  and  supervisor 
(usually  filled  by  Americans)  are  subject  to  the  civil 
service  law  and  the  positions  of  secretary  and  fiscal 
are  filled  by  appointment  of  the  Philippine  Commis- 
sion. At  this  time  all  the  provincial  governors  of 
the  Christian  provinces  are  duly  elected  Filipinos. 
The  remaining  provincial  offices  are  filled  by  86 
Americans  and  238  natives. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  provincial  and  municipal 
governments  conform  very  much  in  structure  to  the 
similar  administrative  branches  under  the  Spaniards. 
It  was  wisdom  on  the  part  of  the  Commission  to 
retain  as  nearly  as  possible  the  form  of  local  govern- 
ment to  which  the  natives  were  accustomed,  whilst 
giving  them  a  greater  share  in  the  administration 
and  a  promise  of  honest  and  capable  officials. 

The  system  is  working  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
people  and  of  the  Commission.  Amongst  upwards 
of  twelve  thousand  Filipino  municipal  officials  there 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE.  213 

have  been  remarkably  few  instances  of  misconduct 
and  no  case  of  a  violation  of  the  oath  of  office  has 
been  established  against  a  president. 

"  The  administration  of  the  Moro  province  is 
especially  designed  to  preserve  as  far  as  possible, 
consistently  with  the  general  policy  applied  to  the 
Philippine  Islands,  the  "customs  of  the  Moros,  the 
authority  of  the  Datos,  and  a  system  of  justice  in 
which  the  Moros  shall  take  part,"  and  to  these  ends 
a  very  large  measure  of  discretion  is  allowed  to  the 
legislative  council.  That  body  consists  of  a  governor, 
who  is  an  officer  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  a  secretary,  at- 
torney, engineer,  superintendent  of  schools,  and  treas- 
urer. The  five  remaining  provinces,  namely,  Ben- 
guet,  Lepanto-Bontoc,  Mindoro,  Nueva  Vizcaya,  and 
Paragua,  are  inhabited  for  the  most  part  by  well-dis- 
posed though  deeply  ignorant  tribes,  to  whom  it  would 
be  impracticable,  for  the  present,  to  extend  any  meas- 
ure of  self-government.  Consequently  all  the  pro- 
vincial and  municipal  positions  in  these  provinces  are 
filled  by  appointment.  The  system  under  which  they 
are  governed,  approximates,  however,  as  closely  as 
possible  to  that  which  obtains  in  the  Christian  prov- 
inces, and  will  be  assimilated  to  it  as  rapidly  as  con- 
ditions justify. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 

A  complete  judicial  system  has  been  established  by 
legislative    enactment   throughout   the   Archipelago. 


214  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

New  codes  of  criminal  law  and  procedure  will  shortly 
be  enacted,  with  the  effect  of  "simplifying  procedure 
and  eliminating  those  provisions  of  the  existing  codes 
which  pertain  to  the  sovereignty  of  Spain,  the  union 
of  church  and  state,  the  rigid  restrictions  on  the  ex- 
ercise of  discretion  by  the  judges,  the  giving  to  private 
individuals  the  right  to  control  and  compromise  crim- 
inal prosecution,  or  to  use  such  prosecutions  for  the 
purpose  of  blackmail  and  extortion,  and  the  authority 
of  the  executive  branch  to  control  the  courts." 

The  judicial  powers  of  the  government  are  dis- 
tributed as  follows : 

The  territory  of  the  Archipelago  is  divided  into 
fifteen  judicial  districts,  in  each  of  which  there  is  a 
court  of  first  instance.  A  judge  is  assigned  to  each 
of  these  districts  and  four  to  the  district  of  Manila. 
There  are  three  additional  judges  to  fill  vacancies. 

The  appellate  jurisdiction  is  vested  in  the  Supreme 
Court,  which  consists  of  seven  members,  three  of 
whom  are  Filipinos.  Provision  is  made  for  appeal 
from  the  supreme  court  of  the  islands  to  that  of  the 
United  States.  There  is  a  justice  of  the  peace  and 
an  auxiliary  justice  of  the  peace  in  each  municipality. 
There  are  a  court  of  customs  appeals,  a  court  of  land 
registration,  and  registrars  of  deeds  for  each  of  the 
provinces. 

The  attorney-general  is  an  American,  the  solicitor- 
general  a  Filipino,  and  their  assistants  about  equally 
divided  between  the  two  nationalities. 


CIVIL  SERVICE  SYSTEM.  215 

The  civil  service  bill  provides  for  the  selection  and 
promotion  of  civilians  to  government  positions  solely 
on  the  basis  of  merit.  The  chief  preference  is  given 
to  natives  of  the  islands,  and  next,  to  honorably 
discharged  soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines  of  the  United 
States.  Examinations  are  made  in  the  Philippines 
and  also  throughout  the  United  States  by  the  United 
States  Civil  Service  Commission.  From  the  first  it 
has  been  found  practicable  to  employ  Filipinos  ex- 
tensively in  the  provincial  and  municipal  services 
where  a  knowledge  of  English  was  not  essential,  and 
with  the  progress  made  by  them  in  acquiring  that 
knowledge  large  numbers  have  been  appointed  to 
positions  in  the  central  government  at  Manila.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few  requiring  special  technical  and 
professional  knowledge,  and  the  elective  offices  of  the 
provinces,  all  government  positions  come  within  the 
scope  of  the  civil-service  act. 

It  was  the  purpose  of  the  Commission  in  passing 
the  civil-service  bill  to  provide  a  system  which  would 
secure  the  selection  and  promotion  of  civilian  officials 
solely  on  the  ground  of  merit,  and  would  permit  any 
one,  by  a  successful  competitive  examination,  to  enter 
the  service  and  by  the  efficient  discharge  of  his  duties 
reach  the  head  of  any  important  department  of  the 
government. 

The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,  May,  1902,  contained  the  fol- 
lowing comment: 


216  THE  PHILIPPINES, 

"It  is  hard  to  see  how  our  government  of  the  Philip- 
pines could  be  started  upon  its  path  in  any  better  way 
than  by  the  excellent  provisions  established  by  the 
Philippine  Commission.  The  reflex  action  upon  our 
Government  at  home  of  the  establishment  of  a  com- 
plete merit  system  in  the  Philippines  is  sure  to  beget 
good  results  when  contrasted  with  the  inefficiency  and 
corruption  that  flow  from  the  remnants  of  the  spoil 
system  here  at  home.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
England  first  tried  competitive  methods  in  her  Indian 
possessions  before  she  established  the  civil  service 
system  at  home,  and  it  was  the  successful  working  of 
this  commission  in  India  which  led  to  its  adoption  in 
England.  It  may  not  be  improper  to  repeat  here 
the  opinion  expressed  on  a  former  occasion  that  inas- 
much as  the  beginnings  of  this  reform  came  from  Cal- 
cutta to  London,  it  is  not  impossible  nor  unreasonable 
to  expect  that  its  perfect  consummation  may  come 
from  Manila  to  Washington." 

In  support  of  the  foregoing  prediction  it  may  be 
affirmed  that  there  is  no  department  of  the  United 
States  Government  more  free  from  the  corrupt  prac- 
tices common  to  most  administrations  than  those 
branches  of  it  that  pertain  to  the  Philippine  Islands. 
Whilst  this  is  true  to-day  it  might  have  been  stated  ten 
years  ago  with  equal  truth  that  in  no  part  of  the  civil- 
ized world  were  such  practices  more  prevalent  than  in 
the  Philippine  Islands. 
'  The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of 


CIVIL  SERVICE  SYSTEM. 


217 


government  positions.  It  does  not,  however,  include 
the  Philippine  Scouts,  which  body  is  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  United  States,  nor  the  numerous  unskilled 
employees  of  the  various  departments : 

Ameri  :ans.  Filipinos. 

Members  of  the  Philippine  Commission  ...         5  3 

Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court 4  3 

Judges  of  the  Courts  of  First  Instance  ...        16  7 
Judges  of  the  Court  of  Customs  Appeals             1  1 
Judges  of  the  Court  of  Land  Registration.          1  1 
Justices  of  the  Peace  and  Auxiliary  Jus- 
tices      1,708 

Civil  Service  of  the  General  Government..   1,777  2,697 

Governors  of  Provinces 8  32 

Other  Provincial  Officials  86  238 

Municipal  Presidents  (Mayors) 982 

Municipal  Counselors    . .  8,159 

Municipal   Secretaries-Treasurers 2,906 

Total     1,898  16,737 

Municipal  School  Teachers 3,500 

Teachers  of  English 1,000 

Total     1,000  3,500 

Municipal   Police    10,000 

Philippines  Constabulary   345  7,000 


Total     345 


17,000 


218  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  duty  and  expense  of  providing  educational 
facilities  for  the  Filipinos  is  assumed  by  the  general 
government  (augmented  in  some  instances  by  munici- 
palities), and  the  work  is  carried  on  by  a  department 
of  public  instruction.  About  3,500  natives  and  1,000 
Americans  are  engaged  as  teachers,  the  latter  in  im- 
parting a  knowledge  of  English  to  the  former  and  in 
instructing  classes  of  children.  At  present  the  de- 
partment maintains  about  2,000  primary  schools  and 
38  secondary  schools.  In  addition,  the  government 
conducts  a  number  of  technological  institutions,  in- 
cluding a  trade  school  and  an  agricultural  school. 
There  is  also  a  well-equipped  nautical  school,  pri- 
marily for  the  purpose  of  educating  officers  for  the 
inter-island  merchant  marine.  Night  schools  in  Ma- 
nila and  other  centers  afford  facilities  to  adults  and 
the  average  attendance  is  recorded  as  10,000  daily. 

FILIPINOS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

An  enactment  of  the  Commission  made  continuous 
provision  for  the  education  of  a  certain  number  of 
Filipinos  in  the  United  States.  In  accordance  with 
its  terms  not  fewer  than  100  Filipinos  are  to  be  sent 
to  America  each  year,  to  remain  for  a  period  of  four 
years,  during  which  time  they  will  receive  advanced 
instruction  in  various  schools  and  colleges  and  will 
be  afforded  the  widest  facilities  for  acquiring  any 
knowledge  which  may  be  useful  to  themselves  and 
their  people  upon  their  return.  This  privilege  is 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  FILIPINOS.  219 

extended  upon  the  condition  that  those  who  enjoy  it 
will  upon  the  completion  of  the  educational  term  of 
four  years  submit  to  the  competitive  examination  for 
the  civil  service,  and  upon  appointment  serve  under 
the  government  for  at  least  the  length  of  time  spent 
at  its  expense  in  the  United  States,  but  otherwise 
the  benefaction  is  free  of  conditions  or  obligations. 

It  is  expected  "that  the  return  of  these  people  to 
the  islands  and  the  dissemination  of  information  by 
them  will  have  a  most  beneficial  and  far-reaching 
effect." 

It  is  impossible  to  subscribe  to  this  sanguine  con- 
clusion without  qualification.  The  experience  of  all 
colonial  governments  has  been  that  the  most  trouble- 
some element  of  a  native  population  is  the  compara- 
tively small  number  who  have  received  education^  and 
particularly  those  who  have  been  educated  abroad. 
However,  that  is  only  one  of  the  risks  necessarily 
involved  in  the  liberal  policy  the  American  Govern- 
ment has  determined  to  pursue  in  the  Philippines. 

In  the  last  fiscal  year  the  Bureau  of  Education 
expended  2,438,185  pesos  in  addition  to  the  sums  con- 
tributed by  different  municipalities  and  provinces  for 
educational  purposes.  The  amount  of  the  Spanish 
expenditures  on  the  same  account  in  1894  was 
404,731  pesos. 

A  complete  system  of  currency  has  been  estab- 
lished, which,  by  maintaining  a  fixed  medium  of  ex- 
change, avoids  the  fluctuations  which  were  such  a 


220  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

grave  detriment  to  trade  in  former  days.  The  silver 
coinage  is  based  upon  the  decimal  system  and  ranges 
in  value  from  the  ten-centavo  piece  to  the  one-peso 
piece.  There  is  also  a  nickel  coin  of  fi.ve-cenkavos 
and  bronze  coins  of  one  and  one-half  centavo.  These 
coins  have  a  fixed  convertible  value  to  the  United 
States  currency  in  the  ratio  of  2  to  1.  A  gold  re- 
serve is  maintained  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
this  parity.  The  islands  have  a  distinctive  paper 
currency  consisting  of  silver  certificates  in  the  de- 
nomination of  two,  five  and  ten  pesos,  bearing  the 
vignettes  respectively  of  Jose  Rizal,  McKinley.  and 
Washington.  During  the  Spanish  regime  the  cur- 
rency of  the  Philippines  was  subject  to  the  fluctu- 
ations of  the  silver  bullion  market,  and  the  trade  of 
the  islands  was  effected  by  the  varying  influences  of 
an  ever-changing  currency  as  well  as  an  ever-changing 
rate  of  exchange. 

MEANS   OF   COMMUNICATION. 

The  Postal  System  has  been  extended  to  every  part 
of  the  Archipelago,  and  mail  is  carried  between  the 
several  offices  with  promptness  and  regularity.  The 
issuance  of  money  orders  has  proved  a  great  boon  to 
the  outlying  districts  which  entirely  lack  banking 
facilities.  There  are  more  than  200  post-offices  in 
the  islands.  The  rate  of  postage  is  the  same  as  in 
the  United  States. 

The   extensive   telegraph    and   telephone    systems 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION.  221 

operated  during  the  military  occupation  have  been 
enlarged  and  improved,  so  that  at  present  8,000  miles 
of  land  and  sea  telegraph  lines  exist,  connecting  al- 
most every  municipality  with  the  seat  of  the  central 
government.  The  new  Pacific  Cable  connecting  the 
United  States  with  the  islands  will  materially  reduce 
the  cost  of  messages  and  should  prove  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  commercial  interests. 

Much  labor  and  millions  of  money  have  been  ex- 
pended upon  the  construction  and  improvement  of 
highways  under  the  direction  of  army  engineers. 
Although  the  work  has  been  carried  on  under  many 
adverse  conditions,  highly  satisfactory  progress  has 
been  made.  The  extensive  system  of  railroads  whose 
construction  is  in  immediate  prospect  must  prove  a 
factor  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  development 
of  economic  and  social  conditions. 

The  Archipelago  has  not  as  yet  been  completely 
surveyed,  but  the  official  estimate  of  74,000,000 
acres  doubtless  expresses  very  closely  its  extent. 
About  5,000,000  acres  of  this  area  are  owned  by  pri- 
vate individuals,  the  balance  being  public  lands. 
The  purchase  of  the  friar  lands  by  which  410,000 
acres  passed  to  the  government  at  a  cost  of  $7,239,000, 
was  an  important  measure  from  the  politic  as  well 
as  the  economic  point  of  view.  The  native  occupants, 
who  entertained  the  most  bitter  feelings  toward  their 
landlords,  held  their  leases  under  conditions  which 
precluded  the  possibility  of  development  and  pros- 


222  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

perity.  In  the  hands  of  the  Commission  these  lands 
promise  to  be  a  source  of  profit  to  both  the  tenant  and 
the  State. 

Referring  to  this  important  matter,  Governor  Taft, 
in  his  report  for  the  year  1903,  says: 

"It  is  thought  that  the  results  of  these  negotiations 
and  the  purchase  of  the  lands  form  a  most  important 
step  in  the  rehabilitation  of  the  people  of  the  islands 
and  that  the  readjustment  of  their  relations  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  cannot  but  be  of  ma- 
terial benefit  in  a  political  way  to  the  insular  and 
provincial  governments.  .  .  .  We  cannot  prophesy 
that  the  adjustment  will  rid  us  entirely  of  the  agra- 
rian questions.  There  will  be,  doubtless,  litigation 
and  local  centres  of  disturbance  growing  out  of  gov- 
ernment landlordism ;  but  the  elimination  of  the  friars 
from  the  question  cannot  but  tend  to  greatly  facilitate 
satisfactory  adjustment.  .  .  .  The  number  of 
friars  in  the  islands  is  rapidly  diminishing  from  year 
to  year,  and  with  the  adjustment  of  the  land  question 
and  the  division  of  the  proceeds  between  the  Orders 
and  the  Church  and  the  use  of  the  part  belonging  to 
the  Roman  Church  for  improvement  of  the  Philippine 
church,  we  may  reasonably  hope  that  in  a  decade  the 
agrarian  and  political  question  of  the  friars  in  the 
Philippines  will  have  been  completely  removed  from 
among  the  obstacles  to  good  government  with  which 
the  Americans,  in  coming  to  the  islands  and  assum- 
ing control  thereof,  were  confronted." 


INVESTIGATION  OF  RESOURCES.  223 

Extensive  investigation  of  the  resources  of  the 
islands  has  been  conducted  by  the  appropriate  bureaus, 
and  a  mass  of  extremely  valuable  information  has 
been  published  in  the  form  of  government  reports. 
The  forests  prove  to  contain  an  enormous  wealth  of 
valuable  timber  and  vegetable  growth.  The  mineral 
and  coal  fields  have  been  surveyed  and  laws  favorable 
to  their  development  have  been  enacted.  In  the  de- 
partment of  agriculture,  which  is  the  chief  resource 
of  the  inhabitants,  the  most  striking  utilitarian  results 
have  been  produced  by  a  competent  corps  of  scientific 
assistants.  Experimental  stations  and  model  farms 
have  been  established,  and  steps  taken,  by  means  of 
quarantine  establishments  and  serum  laboratories,  to 
stamp  out  rinderpest  and  other  cattle  diseases.  A 
stock  farm  is  in  operation  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing on  experiments  in  breeding  with  a  view  to  pro- 
ducing farm  animals  especially  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  Philippines.  In  order  to  alleviate  the 
heavy  losses  from  disease  during  the  earlier  years  of 
American  occupation,  the  government  imported  a 
great  number  of  draft  animals,  chiefly  carabao,  which 
were  sold  to  the  farmers  at  less  than  cost.  A  move- 
ment to  rehabilitate  the  coffee  industry,  which  some 
ten  years  ago  collapsed  under  insect  blight,  bids  fair 
to  restore  to  the  islands  what  was  formerly  a  very 
important  and  profitable  commercial  enterprise.  The 
agricultural  college  on  the  island  of  Negros  is  doing  a 
notable  work  in  the  education  of  native  farmers  to 
scientific  agriculture 


224  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  tariff  regulations  were  adopted  only  after  the 
submission  of  the  draft  of  the  proposed  legislation  to 
the  importers  and  exporters  of  Manila  and  of  the 
United  States. 

FOREIGN     COMMERCE. 

With  a  view  to  the  rapid  development  of  the 
islands  import  duties  (except  upon  luxuries)  have 
been  placed  at  low  figures,  lower,  in  fact,  than 
those  which  prevailed  during  the  Spanish  regime, 
or  those  in  force  in  the  United  States.  An  act 
of  Congress  allows  for  a  reduction  of  25  per  cent, 
of  the  Dingley  tariff  on  imports  into  the  United 
States  from  the  Philippines,  and  further  provides 
that  all  duties  collected  in  the  United  States  on  arti- 
cles coming  from  the  Philippines  and  also  tonnage 
dues  shall  be  remitted  to  the  Philippine  treasury  for 
the  benefit  of  the  islands;  also  that  the  Philippine 
government  shall  refund  the  export  duties  upon  hemp 
and  other  products  of  the  islands  in  the  event  they 
were  exported  to  the  United  States. 

During  the  first  five  years  of  American  adminis- 
tration the  commerce  of  the  Philippines  increased  150 
per  cent,  from  $25,000,000  in  1899  to  $66,000,000 
in  1903.  Despite  agricultural  depression  the  ex- 
ports have  advanced  during  that  period  from  $12,- 
000,000  to  $33,000,000,  leaving  a  balance  of  trade  in 
favor  of  the  islands.  The  passage  of  the  act  of  Con- 
gress relating  to  customs,  etc.,  enabled  the  United 
States  immediately  to  displace  the  United  Kingdom 
as  the  chief  customer  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 


NAVIGATION,  HEALTH,  ETC.  225 

SOURCES   OF   REVENUE. 

The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are  customs  receipts, 
from  which  approximately  80  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
is  derived;  internal  revenue,  including  an  industrial 
tax  on  all  trades,  professions,  and  arts;  a  land  tax; 
registration  taxes;  etc.  It  may  be  stated  that  the 
postal  service  is  nearly  self-supporting. 

The  total  revenue  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1903,  amounted  to  $15,326,125,  and  the  ex- 
penditures to  $14,262,503.  During  the  first  five 
years  of  American  occupation  the  revenue  aggregated 
$49,915,944,  and  the  expenditures  $37,516,076. 

NAVIGATION,   HEALTH,  ETC. 

Harbor  improvements  have  been  carried  out  at 
Manila,  Cebu,  Iloilo,  and  other  points,  and  extensive 
surveys  of  the  more  important  harbors  and  gulfs  have 
been  completed  under  officers  of  the  United  States 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.  An  appropriation  of 
$6,000,000  for  the  harbor  of  Manila  is  designed  to 
increase  greatly  the  accommodation  of  that  port,  and 
to  enable  vessels,  from  the  shelter  of  a  breakwater, 
to  discharge  cargoes  at  all  seasons  upon  the  docks, 
without  the  medium  of  lighterage,  whereas  formerly, 
during  the  monsoons,  ships  frequently  lay  for  several 
days  in  the  bay,  incurring  heavy  demurrage,  whilst 
awaiting  a  favorable  opportunity  to  unload. 

An   efficient  coast-guard  service  has  been  estab- 

15 


226  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

lished,  with  seventeen  vessels,  fifteen  of  which  are  new 
ones  purchased  by  the  Philippine  government.  In 
the  matter  of  health  and  sanitation,  the  government 
encountered  one  of  the  most  serious  and  difficult  of 
the  many  problems  presented  by  the  condition  of 
the  islands  when  transferred  to  the  United  States. 
In  spite,  however,  of  indifference  and  in  many  cases 
active  opposition,  upon  the  part  of  the  natives,  meas- 
ures for  the  improvement  of  the  health  of  Manila 
and  the  different  provinces  have  been  applied  with 
vigor  and  the  most  remarkable  results.  Owing  to 
compulsory  vaccination,  smallpox,  formerly  the  great 
scourge  of  the  islands,  has  ceased  to  be  an  important 
factor  in  the  death  rate.  The  ability  of  the  board  of 
health  to  cope  with  serious  emergencies  was  severely 
tested  by  the  cholera  epidemic,  which  broke  out  over 
a  wide  area  in  1902.  Many  of  the  towns  affected 
were  without  medical  aid,  or  any  knowledge  of  means 
of  checking  the  plague.  Nevertheless,  by  prompt  and 
energetic  action  the  attack  was  eradicated  in  less  than 
a  year.  The  magnitude  of  the  operations  of  the 
board  of  health  on  this  occasion  may  be  judged  from 
the  fact  that  its  expenditures  were  considerably  in 
excess  of  1,000,000  pesos.  Hospitals,  dispensaries, 
detention  wards,  and  their  appropriate  auxiliaries, 
have  been  established  and  an  efficient  quarantine  serv- 
ice is  maintained.  At  Benguet,  in  the  highlands,  a 
sanatarium  has  been  established  by  the  government  for 
the  recuperation  of  civilians  and  soldiers.  As  a  so- 


MANILA.  227 

journ  at  Benguet  produces  results  equally  good  with 
those  following  transfer  to  the  United  States,  great 
saving  in  time  and  money,  it  is  believed,  will  be 
effected  by  the  institution. 

MANILA. 

Manila  is  the  seat  of  central  government  and  the 
commercial  centre  of  the  islands.  Its  system  of 
municipal  administration  is  based  upon  that  of  the 
city  of  Washington.  The  streets,  which  formerly  were 
frequently  submerged  during  heavy  rains,  have  been 
elevated,  graded,  widened  and  paved.  The  bridges 
across  the  Pasig  have  been  improved  and  an  addition 
made  to  them  by  a  fine  double  bridge  of  the  latest  pat- 
tern. The  water  supply  has  been  increased  and  im- 
proved. Under  Spanish  rule  Manila  was  entirely 
destitute  of  sewage  accommodation.  The  deficiency 
has  been  remedied  by  the  installation  of  an  adequate 
system,  in  course  of  extension.  Modern  market  build- 
ings have  displaced  the  aggregations  of  native  huts, 
which  represented  the  trading  marts  of  Spanish  days. 
An  electric  road  of  forty-five  miles  has  solved  the 
problem  of  transportation  in  the  widely-straggling 
city.  The  corporation  which  operates  this  railroad 
will  supply  electric  light  and  power  to  the  munici- 
pality. The  antiquated  and  wholly  inadequate  fire 
department  maintained  by  the  Spaniards  has  been 
transformed  into  a  first-class  fire  department,  with  an 
ample  supply  of  up-to-date  apparatus.  The  city  is 


228  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

excellently  policed  by  natives  under  the  supervision 
of  Americans.  The  public  parks  have  been  improved 
and  enlarged,  and  a  plot  of  land  set  aside  for  a 
botanical  garden. 

BONDED  INDEBTEDNESS. 

The  finances  of  the  islands  have  been  managed  with 
the  utmost  skill  and  economy.  The  funded  debt  has, 
paradoxical  as  the  statement  may  appear,  been  so 
far  a  source  of  profit.  Under  the  Spanish  Crown 
the  debt  of  the  islands  was  $40,000,000.  This  was 
disposed  of  by  the  purchase  and  the  payment  by  the 
United  States  of  $20,000,000.  The  present  obliga- 
tions of  the  Philippine  islands,  the  rates  of  interest 
paid  upon  them  and  the  premiums  received  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

Character  of  Loan.  Interest.     Premium. 

First  issue  one-year  certificates,  $3,000,000.  $120,000  $75,390 
Second  issue  one-year  certificates,  $3,000,- 

000  120,000  67,200 

Bonds  for  the  purchase  of  friar  lands, 

$7,000,000    280,000    530,370 

Distributing  the  premium  of  the  friar  lands  bonds 
over  the  redemption  period  of  ten  years,  the  net  an- 
nual interest  charge  is  reduced  to  3.1  per  cent. 

The  net  interest  charge  upon  the  government  for 
its  funded  debt  is  $224,410,  a  rate  of  about  2.25  per 
cent,  of  the  customs  receipts,  the  principal  revenue 
of  the  islands.  No  other  country  in  the  world  can 


BONDED  INDEBTEDNESS.  229 

boast  that  the  interest  on  its  public  debt  is  offset  by 
such  a  small  percentage  of  its  revenue.  In  France,  30 
per  cent,  of  the  gross  revenue  is  required  to  meet  the 
interest  on  the  national  debt;  in  Great  Britain,  19 
per  cent. ;  in  the  United  States,  5  per  cent,  without 
taking  into  account  State  indebtedness.  In  the  Phil- 
ippines the  funded  debt  amounts  to  $1.62  per  capita, 
and  the  annual  interest  charge  to  four  cents  per 
capita;  in  the  United  States  the  first  item  is  in  ex- 
cess of  $12,  the  second  of  30  cents ;  in  Great  Britain 
the  figures  are  $90  and  $3  ;  in  France,  $150  and  $6. 

" There  are  few,  if  any,  civilized  States,  moreover, 
which  have  so  much  to  show  as  the  Philippines  for 
the  debt  which  they  have  incurred.  A  part  represents 
a  substantial  asset  in  gold  in  the  custody  of  banks  and 
trust  companies  in  New  York.  The  other  part  repre- 
sents the  acquisition  of  the  best  lands  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  which  the  Government  has  acquired 
from  the  friars,  in  order  to  give  them  back  to  their 
natural  cultivators,  the  people  of  the  islands.  Both  of 
these  debts  will  be  subject  to  reduction  in  the  course 
of  events  without  levying  taxes  or  providing  a  sinking 
fund.  In  the  case  of  the  $6,000,000,  which  has  been 
appropriated  temporarily  to  meet  the  expenses  of 
inaugurating  the  new  coinage  system,  half  of  the 
amount  will  be  no  longer  necessary  when  the  system 
is  completed.  The  money  was  made  available  simply 
for  the  purpose  of  covering  capital  tied  up  in  bullion 
in  transit  from  the  mines  to  the  completed  coin." 


230  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  taking  of  the  Philippine  Census  of  1903  was 
an  act  of  the  greatest  importance  and  in  more  than 
one  respect  an  extraordinary  achievement.  The  work 
was  undertaken  in  accordance  with  an  act  of  Con- 
gress approved  July  1,  1902,  which  provided  "that 
whenever  the  existing  insurrection  shall  have  ceased 
and  a  condition  of  general  and  complete  peace  shall 
have  been  established  therein  ....  the  Presi- 
dent, upon  being  satisfied  thereof,  shall  order  a  cen- 
sus of  the  Philippine  Islands  to  be  taken  by  said 
Philippine  Commission;  such  census  in  its  enquiries 
relating  to  the  population  shall  take  and  make,  so  far 
as  practicable,  full  report  of  all  the  inhabitants,  of 
name,  age,  sex,  race,  or  tribe,  whether  native  or  for- 
eign born,  literacy  in  Spanish,  native  dialect  or  lan- 
guage, or  in  English;  school  attendance,  ownership 
of  homes,  industrial  and  social  statistics,  and  such 
other  information,  separately  for  each  island,  each 
province  and  municipality,  or  "other  civil  division,  as 
the  President  and  such  commission  may  deem  neces- 
sary." 

POLITICAL,  OBJECT  OF  CENSUS. 

v.      The  chief  political  object  of  the  census  was  set 
forth  in  the  following  words: 

"That  two  years  after  the  completion  and  publica- 
tion of  the  census,  in  case  such  condition  of  general 
and  complete  peace  with  recognition  of  the  authority 
of  the  United  States  shall  have  continued  in  the  terri- 


CENSUS  OF  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS.         231 

tory  of  said  islands  not  inhabited  by  Moros,  or 
other  non-Christian  tribes,  ...  the  President 
upon  being  satisfied  thereof  shall  direct  said  Com- 
mission to  call,  and  the  Commission  shall  call,  a  gen- 
eral election  for  the  choice  of  delegates  to  a  popular 
assembly  of  the  people  of  said  territory  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  which  shall  be  known  as  the  Philippine 
Assembly.  After  said  assembly  shall  have  convened 
and  organized,  all  the  legislative  power  heretofore 
conferred  on  the  Philippine  Commission  in  all  that 
part  of  said  islands  not  inhabited  by  Moros,  or  other 
non-Christian  tribes,  shall  be  vested  in  a  legislature 
consisting  of  two  houses — the  Philippine  Commission 
and  the  Philippine  Assembly.  Said  assembly  shall 
consist  of  not  less  than  50,  nor  more  than  100,  mem- 
bers, to  be  apportioned  by  said  Commission  among 
the  provinces  as  nearly  as  practicable  according  to 
population." 

The  censuses  effected  under  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment were  little  more  than  mere  enumerations,  and 
even  as  such  were  very  far  from  being  complete  or 
reliable.  Their  main  object  was  to  form  a  basis  for 
taxation  and  conscription.  They  were,  therefore, 
highly  unpopular  with  the  masses,  who  obstructed 
and  misinformed  the  enumerators.  It  was  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  agents  of  the  American  Government 
would  experience  similar  difficulties,  if  not  greater, 
on  account  of  the  recently  disturbed  state  of  the  coun- 
try. However,  the  Commission  boldly  essayed  the 


232  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

task,  voluntarily  increasing  its  magnitude,  and  delib- 
erately choosing  the  most  arduous,  though  also  the 
most  effective,  method  for  its  accomplishment.  The 
outcome  was  a  triumph  for  the  Commission  and  a 
complete  refutation  of  the  predictions  of  pessimists 
at  home  and  in  the  islands. 

A  MODEL  PROCLAMATION. 

It  was  also  a  thorough  justification  of  the  confi- 
dence Governor  Taft  has  always  been  ready  to  place 
in  the  Filipinos  when  appealed  to  in  the  right  way. 
His  proclamation  upon  this  occasion,  simple,  concil- 
iatory and  logical,  was  unquestionably  a  potent  factor 
in  the  result.  As  a  pattern  for  the  style  of  public 
document  which  is  most  effective  with  a  people  like 
the  Filipinos  it  is  well  worth  quoting: 

"In  accordance  with  the  policy  of  President  Mc- 
Kinley,  announced  in  his  instructions  of  April  7, 
1900,  the  Philippine  Commission  has  extended  to  the 
people  of  the  Philippine  Islands  complete  autonomy 
in  the  matter  of  municipal  government,  and  partial 
autonomy  in  the  matter  of  provincial  government. 
By  actual  experience  the  qualified  electors  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  are  learning  the  science  of  self- 
government.  The  policy  of  the  late  President  Mc- 
Kinley  has  been  sincerely  adopted  and  followed  by 
President  Eoosevelt ;  and  the  aim  of  the  Commission 
in  accordance  with  his  instructions,  gradually  to  ex- 
tend self-government  to  the  people  of  the  islands,  was 


A  MODEL  PROCLAMATION,  233 

approved  and  adopted  by  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  at  its  last  session,  in  the  so-called  Philippine 
Act,  by  which  provision  was  made  for  the  election 
of  a  popular  Philippine  assembly  within  two  years 
after  the  taking  of  a  comprehensive  census  of  the 
Philippine  Islands.  The  taking  of  the  census  is  in- 
dispensable to  the  calling  of  a  general  election  for 
this  popular  assembly.  No  other  object  besides  the 
collection  of  the  necessary  data  for  determining  the 
social  and  industrial  conditions  of  the  people,  as  the 
basis  of  intelligent  legislative  action,  is  involved  in 
the  taking  of  this  census.  By  the  terms  of  the  census 
law,  passed  by  the  Philippine  Commission,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  census  is  to  be  largely  in  the  hands  and 
under  the  control  of  the  Filipinos.  The  taking  of 
the  census  will  therefore  form  a  test  of  the  capacity 
of  the  Filipinos  to  discharge  a  most  important  func- 
tion of  government.  The  information  secured  by  the 
census  will  form  the  basis  upon  which  capital  will  be 
invested  in  the  islands  and  the  material  prosperity  of 
the  people  brought  about.  The  census,  therefore,  is 
to  be  taken  solely  for  the  benefit  of  the  Filipino  peo- 
ple, and  if  they  desire  to  have  a  larger  voice  in  their 
own  government  within  the  near  future,  if  they  de- 
sire to  demonstrate  to  the  world  a  growing  capacity 
for  self-government,  and  if  they  would  aid  the  in- 
vestment of  capital  and  the  improvement  of  their 
material  condition  they  should  lend  their  unanimous 
support  to  the  successful  taking  of  the  census." 


234  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  same  proclamation  appointed  March  2,  1903, 
as  "census  day/'  and  upon  that  date  the  work  began 
simultaneously  in  every  part  of  the  Archipelago. 

AMERICAN  CENSUS  METHODS  FOLLOWED. 

It  had  been  determined,  in  dealing  with  the  Chris- 
tain,  or  civilized  peoples,  to  adopt  the  American 
method  of  census  taking,  which  is  the  most  compre- 
hensive extant,  and  much  more  efficient  than  any 
method  which  had  ever  been  applied  to  an  Oriental 
people.  Its  operation  required,  in  addition  to  the 
Bureau  force,  a  specially  appointed  corps  of  super- 
visors, special  agents,  special  enumerators,  and  enu- 
merators with  sufficient  intelligence  to  collect  the  de- 
sired statistics.  It  also  required  the  division  of  the 
country  into  supervisors'  districts,  having  clearly- 
defined  geographical  limits,  and  these  into  equally 
well-defined  enumerators'  districts.  Here  the  first 
and  a  very  serious  obstacle  was  encountered  in  the 
lack  of  provincial  or  municipal  maps.  This  difficulty 
was  overcome  by  requiring  the  presidents  of  munici- 
palities to  return  diagrams  of  their  respective  town- 
ships showing  the  relative  location  and  the  approxi- 
mate distance  of  each  barrio  from  the  main  barrio  or 
seat  of  municipal  government  and,  if  possible,  the 
area  of  the  municipality.  Under  the  authority  to  col- 
lect "such  other  information"  as  might  be  deemed 
necessary  the  Commission  decided  to  add  to  the  data 
specified  by  Congress  the  statistics  of  schools,  agri- 


NOVEL  EXPERIENCE  OF  CENSUS  AGENTS,  235 

culture,  manufactures,  railroads,  fishing,  mining,  tele- 
graph, express  transportation,  insurance,  and  bank- 
ing, so  that  the  extent  of  inquiry  of  this  census 
of  the  Philippines  was  almost  as  wide  as  that  of  the 
Twelfth  Census  of  the  United  States. 

The  governors  of  provinces  and  the  presidents  and 
councilmen  of  municipalities  were  employed  as  far 
as  possible.  Amongst  the  Moros  and  other  wild 
tribes  of  Mindanao  it  was  thought  advisable  to  employ 
officers  of  the  army.  The  total  number  of  persons  en- 
gaged in  taking  the  Census  was  7,627,  of  whom  118 
were  Americans,  7,642  native  men  and  40  native 
women,  1  Japanese  and  6  Chinese.  The  work  every- 
where progressed  smoothly.  Three  enumerators  were 
attacked  by  ladrones,  but,  with  this  exception,  there 
was  no  opposition  to  the  census,  and  the  fact  may  be 
accepted  as  significant  of  the  attitude  of  the  masses 
toward  the  American  Government  as  represented  by 
the  Commission. 

NOVEL  EXPERIENCE  OF  CENSUS  AGENTS. 

The  experience  of  many  of  the  census  agents  was 
interesting  and  instructive,  especially  in  dealing  with 
the  wild  tribes.  The  Supervisor  of  JSTueva  Vizcaya 
said :  "The  Igorots  are  very  slow  to  move,  and  do  not 
count  beyond  ten ;  after  that  it  is  so  many  tens  up  to 
one  hundred,  and  beyond  one  hundred  is  an  incom- 
prehensible figure  to  them  which  they  never  enter 
into.  The  system  adopted  by  me  was  to  send  enumer- 


236  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ators  some  days  ahead  to  advise  the  Igorots  of  what 
we  wanted,  and  get  them  to  count  their  houses,  people, 
and  domestic  animals,  and  measure  by  a  sample  stick 
given  them  the  land  owned  and  cultivated  by  each 
family.  They  counted  the  animals  and  people  by 
making  notches  on  rattan  sticks  and  bringing  one 
bundle  to  represent  the  men,  one  bundle  for  the 
women,  one  for  the  chickens,  pigs  and  so  on,  together 
with  the  name  of  the  settlement." 

Major  Kennon  in  the  Iligan  district  found  the 
Moros  anything  but  communicative.  lie  stated  that 
"a  considerable  amount  of  diplomacy  was  necessary 
in  order  to  overcome  their  suspicions.  One  of  the 
sultans  of  the  district  refused  absolutely  to  give  any 
information  whatever.  I  reasoned  with  him  in  every 
way,  but  could  get  nothing  from  him — not  even  his 
objections.  At  last  I  told  him  that  we  were  not  ob- 
taining the  data  for  the  purpose  of  putting  a  tax 
on  his  people.  At  this  he  opened  up  somewhat ;  and 
when  I  spoke  of  the  customs  of  the  people  and  of  the 
intention  of  the  Americans  to  leave  all  minor  ques- 
tions of  that  character  to  the  people,  it  seemed  that 
I  had  found  the  basis  of  his  objections.  He  bright- 
ened up  at  once  and  said  he  had  feared  that  we  wanted 
to  make  them  dress  like  white  folks  and  Filipinos; 
that  we  wanted  to  make  them  wear  shoes  and  hats 
and  to  cut  off  their  hair.  Reassured  on  this  point,  he 
readily  gave  all  the  information  desired." 

Another  report  from  a  Moro  district  says:    "The 


GREAT  SCOPE  OF  THE  CENSUS.  237 

Moro  has  some  excellent  qualities,  but  appreciation  of 
the  value  of  time  is  certainly  not  one  of  them.  The 
asking  of  the  most  necessary  questions,  or  the  obtain- 
ing answers  to  them,  would  frequently  take  up  a 
full  hour  of  our  time  at  one  Moro's  house.  .  .  . 
Again,  some  of  the  necessary  questions  the  Moros 
wouldn't  answer  at  all;  for  instance,  no  Moro  will 
tell  his  own  name  under  any  circumstances."  This 
difficulty  was  possibly  overcome  by  asking  each  man 
the  name  of  his  neighbor. 

GREAT  SCOPE  OF  THE  CENSUS. 

The  results  of  the  census  are  contained  in  four 
large  volumes  aggregating  about  2,500  pages.*  It 
brought  to  light  a  great  deal  of  new  information  of  a 
valuable  nature  and  corrected  many  errors  and  mis- 
conceptions. In  addition  to  the  statistical  tables  and 
analytical  text,  the  publication  includes  a  number  of 
pertinent  articles,  mostly  contributed  by  natives,  the 
whole  making  a  complete  and  accurate  presentation  of 
the  islands  and  their  inhabitants.  Some  of  the  facts 
strikingly  brought  out  by  the  census  are  as  follows: 
The  Spanish  estimate  of  the  number  of  Moros  was 
far  in  excess  of  the  actual  figure,  and  the  number  of 
Chinese  in  the  islands  has  been  greatly  exaggerated. 
The  census  gives  a  total  of  41,000  for  the  latter. 
Practically  all  the  people  are  engaged  in  agriculture 
of  some  form,  but  the  area  under  cultivation  is 

*  Census  of  the  Philippine  Islands.     Washington,  1905. 


238  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

small  compared  to  the  whole.  Applying  the  standard 
of  ability  to  speak,  read,  and  write  Spanish,  but  1.6 
per  cent,  of  the  civilized  population  may  be  consid- 
ered educated.  The  statistics  support  the  statement 
that  the  climate  of  the  Philippine  Islands  is  salubri- 
ous and  healthful,  and  the  reports  of  the  Surgeon- 
General  of  the  Army  point  to  the  same  conclusion. 
Conspicuous  facts  are  the  entire  absence  of  hospitals, 
except  in  a  few  large  cities ;  the  existence  of  but  twelve 
public  libraries,  with  4,019  volumes,  the  great  pre- 
ponderance of  churches,  the  small  number  of  news- 
papers, and  the  comparatively  small  number  of  pau- 
pers and  criminals.  The  data  concerning  insurance, 
banks,  telegraph  lines,  and  express,  show  the  need 
rather  than  the  existence  of  these  forms  of  indus- 
try. The  same  may  be  said  of  roads  and  railways. 
On  the  other  hand,  great  improvements,  expected  and 
in  prospect,  are  shown  in  the  facilities  for  water  trans- 
portation. The  schedule  relating  to  mechanical  in- 
dustries exhibits  the  limited  extent  of  manufactures 
and  the  excellent  opportunities  for  investment  in  that 
direction.  The  report  makes  it  very  apparent  that 
the  great  need  of  the  Philippines  now  is  moral, 
material,  and  industrial  improvement  commensurate 
with  their  political  condition. 


COMMERCE. 


VI. 

COMMERCE. 

Traffic  with  Mexico — Early  Commercial  Enterprises — The 
Colony  Opened  to  the  Trade  of  the  World— A  Review  of 
Philippine  Commerce — The  Import  Trade — The  Export 
Trade — Manila  Hemp — The  Sugar  Industry — Tobacco 
— Copra — Coffee — The  Transportation  Problem. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  conquest  and  coloni- 
zation of  the  Philippine  Islands  were  effected  from 
Mexico,  and  the  islands  continued  to  be  a  sort  of 
dependency  of  the  older  possession.  Regular  com- 
munication was  established  between  the  two  countries 
by  means  of  State  galleons  which  made  a  voyage  to 
and  fro  once  a  year.  The  service  was  established  in 
1611  and  maintained  until  1815.  The  State  Nao 
carried  from  one  to  four  million  dollars  worth  of 
specie  and  merchandise  and  transported  officials  and 
despatches.  For  a  long  period  it  was  the  only  stated 
means  of  communication  between  the  colony  and  the 
mother  country.  The  vessels  were  squat,  tub-like 
four-deckers,  with  great  elevation  fore  and  aft.  They 
carried  cannon  and  men-at-arms. 

Until  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 

the  Philippines  had  no  distinctive  currency,  and  in 

the  early  days  there  was  no  coin  of  any  kind  in  the 

islands.     Taxes  were   paid   in  kind    and   stored   in 

is  (  241  ) 


242  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Manila  to  await  the  periodical  calls  of  the  Chinese 
traders,  with  whom  they  were  bartered.  The  Chinese 
wares  and  manufactures  thus  acquired  were  shipped 
to  Mexico  for  sale  on  account  of  the  Royal  Treasury. 
In  return  a  certain  sum  of  money,  termed  the  Real 
Situado,  or  Royal  Allowance,  was  yearly  furnished 
to  the  Insular  Government  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  administration.  Theoretically  these  transactions 
balanced,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  was  always  a 
deficit  in  the  revenues,  which  could  not  have  been 
made  up  without  the  subsidy. 

TRAFFIC  WITH  MEXICO. 

The  available  space  in  the  vessel,  after  the  royal 
shipment  had  been  accommodated,  was  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  a  close  corporation  of  merchants  called 
the  Consulado.  The  value  of  their  annual  shipments 
was  at  first  limited  to  $250,000,  the  return  for  which 
could  not  legally  exceed  $500,000  in  cash,  being  one 
hundred  per  cent,  profit,  the  amount  realized  for 
many  years  on  these  ventures.  The  value  of  the 
merchandise  that  might  be  shipped  in  this  manner 
was  increased  from  time  to  time,  ultimately  reach- 
ing $750,000.  It  always  remained  nominally  under 
regulation,  but  the  restrictions  upon  it  were  con- 
stantly evaded.  The  commerce  of  the  islands  was 
for  two  centuries  limited  to  this  traffic  with  Mexico. 
The  merchants  were  permitted  to  engage  in  trade  to 
the  extent  of  buying  such  productions  of  China, 


TRAFFIC  WITH  MEXICO.  243 

India,  and  Persia,  as  might  be  brought  to  the  Philip- 
pines, and  transhipping  them  to  New  Spain.  These, 
and  the  produce  of  the  Archipelago,  were  the  only 
kinds  of  merchandise  in  which  they  might  deal,  and 
they  were  only  allowed  to  acquire  foreign  goods  from 
traders  who  brought  them  to  the  islands. 

Thus  the  Naos  de  Acapulco  were  not  only  the  sole 
channel  for  the  trade  of  the  Archipelago,  but  also  the 
sole  source  of  money  for  the  use  of  the  Government 
and  the  people.  It  followed  that  any  derangement 
of  the  regular  sailings  caused  serious  injury  to  the 
Colony.  Shipwreck  and  tempest  not  infrequently 
disposed  of  the  galleons  and  many  of  them  fell  prizes 
to  Spain's  naval  enemies,  the  English  and  Dutch,  en- 
tailing heavy  losses  upon  the  Royal  Treasury  and  the 
private  shippers,  besides  depriving  the  Philippines 
of  their  necessary  supplies  of  coin.  The  voyages  of 
the  galleons  were  sometimes  interrupted  for  two  or 
three  years  at  a  time,  and  it  happened  once  that  five 
years  elapsed  between  the  departure  of  one  nao  and 
the  arrival  of  the  next.  The  consequent  dearth  of 
currency  caused  great  misery.  Early  in  the  eight- 
eenth century  the  merchants  of  southern  Spain  com- 
plained that  their  trade  to  Mexico  was  seriously  im- 
paired by  the  imports  to  that  country  from  the 
Philippines  of  Chinese  fabrics.  As  a  consequence  of 
their  urgent  representations  to  the  King  restrictions 
were  placed  upon  the  trade  of  the  islands  to  the  great 
detriment  of  their  merchants.  The  operation  of  these 


244  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

impediments  and  the  expulsion  of  the  non-Christian 
Chinese  in  1755  caused  a  marked  decline  in  the  com- 
merce of  the  Archipelago.  At  this  period  the  only 
exports  of  native  produce  were  sugar,  cacao,  wax, 
and  sapanwood. 

EARLY   COMMERCIAL   ENTERPRISES. 

Following  the  banishment  of  the  Chinese  an  at- 
tempt was  made  by  the  Spanish  merchants  to  con- 
centrate the  entire  trade  of  the  islands  in  their  own 
hands.  An  official  order  closed  the  shop  of  every 
Chinaman,  and  a  company  was  formed  with  the  inten- 
tion of  monopolizing  the  trade  in  the  produce  of  the 
Philippines  and  the  staple  imports.  The  project 
looked  promising,  but  it  met  with  failure,  owing 
chiefly  to  the  inability  of  the  Spaniards  to  secure 
from  the  Chinese  traders  as  favorable  terms  as  the 
latter  had  made  with  their  countrymen. 

About  the  same  time  a  commercial  corporation 
named  the  "Cornpania  Guipuzcoana  de  Caracas"  was 
created  by  Royal  charter  with  certain  privileges. 
The  company  enjoyed  a  practical  monopoly  of  the 
trade  between  the  Philippines  and  New  Spain  which 
was  still  carried  on  through  the  medium  of  the  State 
galleons.  This  venture  was  not  a  success,  and  the 
charter  was  surrendered  in  1753. 

A  much  more  pretentious  undertaking  was  the 
"'Real  Compania  de  Filipinas."  This  company  was 
authorized  by  Royal  charter  dated  March  the  10th, 


EARLY  COMMERCIAL  ENTERPRISES.  245 

1785,  with  a  paid-up  capital  of  $8,000,000,  in  32,000 
shares  of  $250  each.  King  Charles  the  Third  sub- 
scribed for  4,000  shares ;  3,000  shares  were  reserved 
for  residents  of  Manila,  and  the  remainder  was  taken 
up  in  the  Peninsula. 

The  new  company  avoided  the  inter-colonial  trade 
and  devoted  itself  to  the  development  of  commerce 
between  the  islands  and  Europe  and  Asia.  It  was 
the  first  time  that  such  a  traffic  had  been  attempted, 
or,  indeed,  permitted,  and,  considering  the  extremely 
favorable  conditions  of  its  inception,  the  enterprise 
should  have  had  different  results. 

By  the  terms  of  its  charter  the  "Real  Compania  de 
Filipinos"  enjoyed  the  exclusive  privilege  of  trade 
between  the  Philippines  and  the  mother  country,  ex- 
cepting such  as  passed  between  Manila  and  Acapulco, 
and  it  was  allowed  to  import  the  produce  of  the 
islands  free  of  duty.  The  company  was  further  pro- 
tected by  a  prohibition  against  foreign  vessels  carry- 
ing goods  from  Europe  to  the  Archipelago. 

All  restrictions  against  the  importation  to  Spain  of 
the  productions  of  China,  India,  and  Japan,  were 
abrogated  in  favor  of  the  company.  The  pre-exist- 
ing prohibition  against  direct  traffic  with  China,  and 
India,  was  removed  to  permit  the  Manila  merchants 
and  the  company's  ships  to  call  at  Chinese  ports. 

The  company  had  the  privilege  of  acquiring  for- 
eign-built vessels  within  two  years  of  the  date  of  its 
incorporation  and  of  entering  them  under  the  Spanish 
flag  free  of  fees. 


246  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  company  could  enter,  duty  free,  all  material 
needed  for  fitting  out  its  ships  and  all  supplies  for 
their  use. 

In  consideration  of  its  charter  and  special  conces- 
sions the  company  undertook  to  support  and  develop 
Philippine  agriculture,  and  to  expend,  with  this  ob- 
ject, four  per  cent,  of  its  net  profits. 

Despite  its  extraordinary  advantages  this  great 
trading  corporation  was  never  prosperous.  The  op- 
portunities for  "graft"  afforded  by  a  concern  of  its 
magnitude  were  great,  and  of  course  were  not  neg- 
lected. Influence  was  exerted  to  secure  lucrative 
and  important  positions  for  incapables,  and  general 
extravagance  characterized  the  management.  The 
system  of  making  advances  to  irresponsible  cultiva- 
tors, which  has  become  a  fixed  feature  of  agricultural 
methods  in  the  Philippines,  was  instituted  by  the 
Real  Compania  and  proved  to  be  one  of  the  chief  fac- 
tors in  its  failure.  Lacking  the  right  to  enforce  labor, 
it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  company  could  have  con- 
trived any  very  considerable  development  of  the  coun- 
try, otherwise  than  by  making  loans  as  an  inducement 
to  the  extension  of  cultivation.  Vast  sums  were 
expended  in  this  direction,  for  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  which  little  or  no  return  was  received. 

The  exclusive  conditions  under  which  the  company 
operated  tended  to  make  smuggling  a  highly  lucrative 
occupation,  and  the  contraband  traffic,  which  before 
the  introduction  of  steamships  was  very  difficult  to 


OPENED  TO  THE  TRADE  OF  THE  WORLD.     247 

suppress,  seriously  impaired  the  profits  of  the  Real 
Compania.  In  1825  the  company's  affairs  were  at 
so  low  an  ebb  as  to  seriously  threaten  a  collapse.  For 
the  time  this  was  averted  by  increasing  the  capital 
in  the  amount  of  $12,500,000.  This  could  not,  how- 
ever, correct  the  inherent  weaknesses  of  the  enter- 
prise, and  in  1830  it  was  found  necessary  to  revoke 
the  charter  of  the  "Real  Compania  de  Filipinas." 

THE   COLONY  OPENED  TO   THE   TRADE   OF   THE   WORLD. 

Notwithstanding  its  disastrous  ending  the  Real 
Compania  had  not  lived  in  vain.  Although  the 
defunct  corporation  had  lost  the  money  of  its  share- 
holders its  operations  resulted  in  the  utmost  benefit 
to  the  islands.  It  gave  a  great  impetus  to  agricul- 
ture and  commerce,  and  was  a  potent  factor  in  the 
prosperity  of  the  Archipelago,  which  distinctly  dates 
its  commencement  from  this  period.  It  also  led  the 
way  to  the  removal  of  the  crippling  restrictions 
under  which  the  trade  of  the  Philippines  had  stag- 
gered up  to  this  time. 

In  the  year  1834  the  port  of  Manila  was  thrown 
open  to  the  trade  of  the  world,  marking  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  the  Philippines. 

The  Spanish  authorities  have  always  displayed  a 
suspicious  reluctance  to  admit  foreign  merchants 
to  the  country,  and  up  to  the  last  many  officials 
entertained  the  opinion  that  the  presence  of  aliens 
was  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  the  Colony.  Pre- 
vious to  the  opening  of  that  port,  permission  to  estab- 


248  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

lish  a  mercantile  house  in  Manila  was  seldom  secured, 
and  never  without  great  difficulty,  by  outsiders.  In 
1844  a  Royal  decree  was  issued  excluding  foreigners 
from  the  interior,  and  as  late  as  1857  an  attempt 
was  made  to  enforce  old  laws  against  the  establish- 
ment of  foreigners  in  the  Archipelago.  Yet  it  is  to 
foreign  capital  and  enterprise  that  the  commerce  of 
the  Philippines  owes  its  permanent  foundation,  and 
the  majority  of  the  Spanish  and  native  merchants 
found  the  beginnings  of  their  business  in  the  same 
sources.  There  was  no  Spanish  capital  in  the  islands, 
nor,  after  the  failure  of  the  Real  Campania  de 
Filipinos,  any  prospect  of  its  coming  there  from 
Spain. 

Foreign  trade  was  hampered  by  burdensome  regu- 
lations. The  import  duties  on  merchandise  carried 
by  foreign  ships  were  double  those  imposed  on  goods 
brought  by  Spanish  vessels.  The  tonnage  charges  on 
foreign  ships  laden  with  cargoes  were  double  those 
on  such  ships  in  ballast,  and  if  one  of  the  latter  landed 
but  a  small  parcel  the  extra  rate  was  exacted.  These 
ridiculous  port  charges  were  abolished  in  1869. 

The  commerce  of  the  islands  from  its  commence- 
ment until  1834  was  centered  in  Manila,  where  the 
only  custom  house  was  located.  After  that  year  other 
ports  of  entry  were  created. 

The  currency  of  the  islands  has  always  been  in  a 
disorganized  condition  and  subject  to  the  fluctuations 
incident  to  a  silver  basis.  The  banking  facilities  were 


NASCENT  PERIOD  OF  COMMERCE.  249 

inadequate,  and  are  not  yet  fully  equal,  to  the  require- 
ments of  business. 

OPENED  TO  THE  TRADE  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Under  the  Spaniards  no  attempt  was  made  to  de- 
velop manufactures,  with  the  single  exception  of 
cigars,  and  the  lack  of  cheap  and  convenient  land 
transportation  militated  against  such  development. 
The  entire  export  trade  of  the  islands  depended  upon 
the  raw  produce  of  the  soil  and  the  forest,  which  will 
always  be  the  chief  sources  of  wealth,  although  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  mechanical  and  mining  industries 
will  in  time  take  a  prominent  place  in  the  economy 
of  the  country.  The  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury was  the  nascent  period  of  Philippine  commerce. 
Its  germination  during  two  centuries  had  been  a  slow 
process  checked  by  hampering  regulations  and  cum- 
bering conditions.  Several  circumstances  acted  at 
about  the  same  time  to  relieve  the  trade  of  the  most 
serious  of  these  impediments  and  to  give  it  a  strong 
impetus.  The  most  important  of  these  favorable  con- 
ditions were  the  operations  of  the  "Real  Compania  de 
Filipinos"  the  cessation  of  restriction  of  export  to 
the  State  galleons,  the  removal  of  the  prohibition 
against  direct  trading  with  China ;  the  abolition  of 
the  nao  service ;  the  independence  of  Mexico  and  the 
consequent  establishment  of  direct  traffic  between 
the  Philippines  and  Spain ;  and,  most  effective  of  all, 
the  opening  of  Manila  to  the  free  commerce  of  the 
world. 


250  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

A    REVIEW    OF    PHILIPPINE    COMMERCE. 

Fifty  years  ago  the  Philippines  were  hardly  known 
in  the  commercial  centres  of  Europe,  and  its  produce 
was  not  a  factor  in  mercantile  calculations.  During 
the  last  half  century,  and  especially  since  the  opening 
of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1870,  the  trade  of  the  islands 
has  made  great  strides,  and  whilst  still  in  its  infancy, 
has  given  reliable  indications  of  the  possibility  of  im- 
mense development  in  the  future.  A  review*  of 
the  commerce  of  the  Philippines  during  the  past  fifty 
years  is  rendered  somewhat  difficult  by  the  incomplete- 
ness of  the  Spanish  records  and  the  impossibility  of 
tracing  shipments  to  their  ultimate  source  and  des- 
tination through  Hongkong,  which  is  a  free  tran- 
shipment port  and  clearing-house  for  Oriental  traffic. 
Following  1855,  for  several  years  these  shipments 
seem  to  have  been  credited  to  China ;  then  for  another 
period  of  years  to  the  "British  Possessions" ;  and 


*  The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  "Historical  review 
and  analysis  of  trade  under  Spanish  and  American  occupa- 
tion" contained  in  the  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  of 
the  Philippine  Islands,  December,  1904,  prepared  by  the 
Bureau  of  Insu'ar  Affairs,  Washington,  D.  C.  The  series 
of  monthly  summaries  issued  by  the  Bureau  includes  a  de- 
tailed report  of  the  trade  of  the  Philippines,  supplemented 
by  instructive  articles  pertinent  to  the  subject.  It  is  a  highly 
valuable  publication  to  the  merchant,  or  shipper,  whose 
business  relations  in  any  way  involve  the  trade,  or  indus- 
tries, of  the  Archipelago. 


PHILIPPINE  COMMERCE.  251 

finally,  during  the  last  six  years  of  Spanish  occupa- 
tion, they  again  figure  as  Chinese  trade. 

A  noticeable  fact  is  that  the  exports  have  averaged 
in  excess  of  the  imports  until  recent  years.  In  1855 
the  export  trade  amounted  to  six  millions  and  the 
import  to  five  and,  with  occasional  exception  and 
variation  in  the  proportions,  this  general  condition 
obtained  up  to  the  termination  of  Spanish  sovereignty. 
During  this  period  the  trade  of  the  islands  reached 
high  water  mark  in  1880  and  remained  about  station- 
ary for  the  remaining  fifteen  years. 

The  prevailing  balance  of  trade  has  been  entirely 
subverted  under  the  American  administration.  Both 
imports  and  exports  have  increased  greatly,  the 
former  being  nearly  doubled.  In  the  past  five  years 
the  apparently  adverse  balance  was :  Two  millions  in 
1900;  five  and  a  half  millions  in  1901;  nearly  five 
millions  in  1902 ;  one  and  a  half  millions  in  1903 ; 
less  than  half  a  million  in  1904 ;  and  a  practical  equi- 
librium was  reached  in  1905.  Whilst  the  balance  of 
trade  is  generally  an  indication  of  the  prosperity, 
or  otherwise,  of  a  nation  whose  industrial  economy  is 
established,  it  is  not  a  safe  criterion  in  the  case  of 
a'n  undeveloped  country  in  a  process  of '-reformation. 
That  the  industrial  energies  of  the  people  of  the  Phil- 
ippines have  been  greatly  stimulated  contemporary 
with  American  occupation,  in  spite  of  insurrectionary 
disorders  and  misfortunes  beyond  human  control,  is 
evidenced  by  the  large  increase  in  exports.  These, 


252  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

during  the  last  five  recorded  years  of  Spanish  rule, 
averaged  a  scant  twenty  millions  of  dollars  and  can 
not  be  assumed  to  have  increased  appreciably  during 
the  years  following,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  they 
had  remained  virtually  stationary  at  this  average 
since  1880.  Yet  in  the  American  quinquennial 
period  1900-1904  these  average  exports  of  twenty 
millions  became  about  twenty-seven  and  a  half  mil- 
lions, and  testify  to  the  stimulated  productiveness  and 
increased  purchasing  power  of  the  islands. 

The  explanation  of  the  recent  reversal  of  the  bal- 
ance of  trade  is  not  far  to  seek.  During  the  five-year 
period  in  question  the  scale  of  wages  throughout  the 
islands  has  largely  increased  and  is  said  to  average 
double  what  it  was  a  decade  ago.  This,  in  connection 
with  the  enhanced  prosperity  denoted  by  the  export 
figures,  would  naturally  imply  an  increase  in  the  pur- 
chasing power  and  inclinations  of  the  masses.  The 
presence  of  the  army  has  been  an  important  factor 
in  producing  the  result  in  question.  At  the  time  of 
the  heaviest  import  balances,  there  were  from  fifty  to 
seventy  thousand  American  soldiers  in  the  Archi- 
pelago, whose  pay  for  the  most  part  was  expended 
upon  articles  of  foreign  manufacture.  Another 
potent  factor  in  the  exceptional  imports  is  to  be 
found  in  the  item  of  ordinary  supplies  for  a  govern- 
ment conducted  upon  a  much  more  liberal  scale  as  re- 
gards public  works  and  improvements  than  was  its 
predecessor.  A  large  proportion  of  these  imports 


THE  IMPORT  TRADE.  253 

were  in  the  nature  of  permanent  investments,  and  in 
an  analysis  carried  to  ultimate  conclusions  would  be 
properly  placed  to  the  credit  account. 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  heavy  relative  credits  in 
favor  of  exports  in  former  years  will  again  prevail, 
nor  is  it  desirable  that  they  should.  A  smaller  bal- 
ance, with  larger  investments  of  export  proceeds  in 
permanent  improvements  to  increase  production  and 
raise  the  standard  of  living  in  the  islands  would 
make  a  more  creditable  showing  than  the  large  bal- 
ances of  the  closing  years  of  Spanish  rule,  which 
seem  to  have  utterly  disappeared  without  conferring 
any  permanent  benefit  upon  the  country.  Europe 
and  Asia  have  been  the  chief  sources  of  import,  in 
approximately  equal  values,  with  America  figuring 
almost  insignificantly  until  1900.  It  is  a  remarkable 
coincidence  that  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  which 
would  naturally  have  been  calculated  to  expand  Euro- 
pean shipments,  marks  a  decided  increase  in  the  Ori- 
ental traffic,  which,  from  that  time,  gained  a  lead 
over  Europe  and  maintained  it  for  many  years.  The 
present  Oriental  trade  averages  about  thirteen  mil- 
lions of  the  thirty  million  total;  Europe  contributes 
about  twelve  millions  and  the  United  States  prac- 
tically the  balance. 

THE    IMPORT    TRADE. 

Of  the  European  countries,  the  United  Kingdom 
and  Spain  have  been  responsible  for  the  bulk  of  the 


254  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

inward  shipments.  The  former  has  been  by  far  the 
most  regular  importer  to  the  Philippines  during  the 
fifty  years.  In  the  pre-Suez  period  half  the  imports 
of  the  islands  was  due  to  her.  The  opening  of  the 
Canal  brought  no  apparent  increase  to  the  British 
trade,  but  it  is  possible  that  some  portion  of  her  ship- 
ments may  be  lost  to  sight  in  the  Hongkong  credits. 
The  record  as  applied  to  Great  Britain  is  strikingly 
uniform,  showing  a  steady,  but  moderate,  increase. 
In  the  pre-Suez  period  the  United  Kingdom  receives 
credit  for  an  average  of  four  millions  in  a  total  of 
seven  and  a  half,  and  in  the  term  from  1880  to  1904 
her  shipments  have  remained  in  the  neighborhood  of 
five  millions  annually,  although  the  aggregate  im- 
ports have  quadrupled  in  the  meantime. 

The  imports  of  Spain,  whilst  second  in  the  Euro- 
pean list,  rarely  amounted  to  one  million  prior  to 
1885.  From  that  date  they  began  to  show  a  material 
increase,  and  under  the  protection  of  the  tariff  of 
1891  her  shipments  grew  to  five  millions,  and  ex- 
ceeded those  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1894.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  American  administration  the  im- 
ports of  Spain  have  dropped  back  to  an  average  of 
about  two  millions. 

The  import  trade  of  Germany  with  the  Philippines 
has  shown  a  gradual  growth,  from  small  beginnings, 
during  the  half  century,  but  seldom  reached  a  value 
of  one  million  dollars  previous  to  1900.  Since  that 
date,  however,  the  annual  average  of  German  ship- 
ments has  exceeded  one  and  three-quarter  millions. 


THE  IMPORT  TRADE.  255 

The  figures  for  France  have  averaged  in  excess  of 
two  millions  for  the  past  five  years,  although  they 
were  comparatively  insignificant  in  former  times. 

The  American  import  trade  with  the  islands,  for- 
merly of  little  consequence,  has  leaped  into  a  leading 
place  in  recent  years.  In  1900  it  amounted  to  two 
millions,  and  in  1904  to  more  than  five  millions, 
exceeding  that  of  all  other  countries  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  French  Indies,  whence  the  rice  shipments 
are  very  heavy. 

The  chief  items  of  Philippine  import  come  under 
the  general  headings  of  clothing,  food-stuffs,  and 
manufactures  of  steel  and  iron.  In  the  period  from 
1900-1904  these  three  classes  of  goods  represent 
about  two-thirds  of  the  total  average  imports  of 
thirty  million  dollars,  and  during  the  decade  from 
1885  to  1894  the  proportion  was  even  greater.  In  the 
latter  period  fibers  and  textiles,  chiefly  cotton  and 
cotton  goods,  accounted  for  six  million  dollars ;  and 
in  the  American  period  for  rather  more.  Since  1900 
food-stuffs  have  taken  the  lead  in  the  items  of  foreign 
purchases.  This  preponderance  has  been  due  to  large 
importations  of  rice,  the  staple  food  of  the  natives. 
Eice  was  also  the  largest  item  in  food  imports  during 
the  Spanish  decade  under  comparison,  but  not  to  such 
an  extent  as  at  present.  The  agricultural  depression 
which  is  a  natural  sequence  of  war,  the  ravages  of  rin- 
derpest, and  other  factors,  account  for  this  condition. 
Although  it  seems  true  that  the  Philippines  ought 


256  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

to  produce  a  larger  proportion  of  the  staple  article 
of  food  of  its  population,  the  fact  of  importing  a  con- 
siderable quantity  is  not  necessarily  an  indication  of 
unfavorable  economic  conditions.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  many  Filipino  laborers  can  apply  themselves  to 
other  branches  of  agriculture  with  greater  profit  than 
they  would  derive  from  growing  rice,  a  low-priced 
product.  In  any  case,  with  the  present  high  scale 
of  wages  and  the  primitive  methods  of  culture  em- 
ployed in  the  islands,  it  is  more  economical  to  buy 
the  cheap  production  of  Asia  than  to  raise  the  grain. 
Unless  a  more  scientific  system  of  cultivation  is  soon 
inaugurated,  the  rice  industry  of  the  Philippines  is 
in  danger  of  extinction.* 

An  important  fact,  as  indicative  of  development 
and  improvement,  is  the  large  increase  in  recent  years 
of  the  imports  of  iron  and  steel.  In  the  compara- 
tive periods  the  average  value  of  this  class  of  ship- 
ments rose  from  eight  hundred  thousand  dollars  to 
in  excess  of  two  millions.  Nearly  half  of  this  total 
is  of  American  origin. 

The  United   States  has  a  practical  monopoly  of 

*The  cost  of  labor  in  the  Chinese  rice  fields  is  about  half 
as  much  as  the  cost  of  similar  labor  in  the  Philippines, 
but  the  adoption  of  economical  methods  would  more  than 
offset  the  difference.  A  Filipino  will  cultivate  one  hectare, 
yielding  1,500  pounds  of  paddy,  at  a  cost  for  his  labor  of 
$20  gold  and  board  per  annum.  A  Louisiana  field  hand  re- 
ceives $200  a  year  and  board,  but  he  produces  160,000  pounds 
of  rice.  He  receives  ten  times  as  much  as  the  Filipino  and, 
with  the  aid  of  scientific  appliances,  does  one  hundred  times 
as  much  work. 


THE  EXPORT  TRADE.  257 

the  flour  imports,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  raw 
cotton. 

There  are  still  extensive  fields  of  the  trade  of  the 
islands  into  which  the  American  shipper  has  not  yet 
entered,  or  only  tentatively,  but  the  growth  of  ship- 
ments of  manufactures  from  the  United  States  to 
the  Philippines  is  distinctly  gratifying  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  it  has.  been  achieved  in  open  competi- 
tion. The  imports  from  Spain  in  1894  were  but 
slightly  greater  than  those  of  America  ten  years  later, 
although  the  former  were  the  culmination  of  relations 
extending  over  a  long  period  and  fostered  by  ad- 
vantages over  competitors.  On  the  other  hand,  Amer- 
ican enterprise  has,  in  a  comparatively  short  space 
of  time,  borne  equal  fruit  in  a  new  field  where  it 
has  not  enjoyed  any  tariff  favors  and  has  had  to  make 
its  way  in  the  face  of  the  established  trade  of  other 
countries.  What  has  already  been  accomplished  gives 
promise  of  an  enormous  extension  of  trade  with  this 
market  after  1909,  when  the  lapse  of  the  restrictions 
imposed  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  will  permit  of  a  re- 
adjustment of  commercial  relations  with  particular 
view  to  the  mutual  advantage  of  the  two  countries. 

THE  EXPORT  TKADE. 

The  export  trade  of  the  Philippines  has  hitherto 
depended  almost  solely  upon  its  agricultural  products. 
Neither  the  rich  mineral  resources  of  the  islands  nor 
their  facilities  for  cultivating  the  mechanical  indus- 
tries have  ever  been  encouraged. 

17 


258  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

During  the  past  fifty  years  the'  exports  have  been 
made  up  practically  of  hemp,  sugar,  tobacco,  coffee, 
and  copra,  with  the  first  two  maintaining  the  leading 
places.  In  pre-Suez  days  these  two  articles,  in  nearly 
equal  quantities,  represented  more  than  half  of  the 
total  exports,  which  averaged  ten  millions.  From  the 
opening  of  the  Canal  until  1885  the  sugar  trade 
enjoyed  its  greatest  prosperity,  and  the  exports  for 
this  period  of  fifteen  years  averaged  nine  millions 
to  five  millions  for  hemp,  in  a  total  average  export  of 
a  little  short  of  twenty  millions.  Thereafter  sugar 
continues  to  decline  under  the  pressure  of  beet  com- 
petition, whilst  hemp  makes  a  steady  increase,  favored 
by  the  natural  monopolistic  conditions  of  the  indus- 
try. In  the  American  period  sugar  has  fallen  into  a 
minor  place,  with  an  average  of  barely  three  mil- 
lions, in  a  total  of  twenty-seven  and  a  half  millions 
of  exports  and  hemp  has  reached  eighteen  millions, 
being  two-thirds  of  the  total. 

Tobacco  has  been  generally  the  chief  of  the  lesser 
exports  with  an  average  value  of  about  two  millions 
during  the  fifty  year  period.  Coffee,  which  has 
virtually  disappeared  from  the  list  of  exports,  reached 
its  highest  figure  in  1889,  with  nearly  two  million  dol- 
lars. Copra  is  the  youngest,  and  one  of  the  most 
promising,  of  the  export  articles  of  the  Philippines. 
The  development  of  the  copra  trade  is  of  recent  years, 
and  during  the  American  period  it  has  passed  tobacco 
in  the  value  of  its  shipments  and  is  closely  approach- 


MANILA  HEMP.  259 

ing  sugar.  Many  of  the  products  of  the  Archipelago, 
which  are  at  present  not  represented  in  the  list  of 
exports,  or  only  by  unimportant  shipments,  are  likely 
in  the  future  to  become  considerable  factors  in  its 
trade. 

MANILA    HEMP. 

Manila  hemp  occupies  a  unique  place  amongst  the 
products  of  the  Philippines.  The  demand  for  it  was 
long  since  established  on  account  of  a  combination  of 
peculiar  qualities  to  which  no  other  fiber  can  lay 
claim.  It  has  been  a  staple  article  of  commerce  for 
a  century,  and  although  numerous  attempts  to  raise 
it  in  foreign  countries  have  been  made,  its  native 
land  remains  the  exclusive  source  of  its  supply. 

Another  exceptional  feature  of  the  hemp  industry 
is  the  essentially  primitive  character  of  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  plant  and  the  method  of  extracting  the 
fiber. 

Maguey  fiber  has  been  an  active  rival  of  Manila 
hemp  in  many  fields,  but  its  chief  advantage  lies  in 
a  lower  price,  and  so  long  as  the  quality  of  the  latter 
is  maintained  at  a  high  grade  it  need  not  fear  com- 
petition. 

Under  these  conditions  of  a  natural  monopoly  in  an 
exceptionally  valuable  commodity,  produced  from  the 
abundance  of  nature,  with  the  most  rudimentary  out- 
lay of  labor  and  capital,  it  might  be  inferred  that  the 
hemp  exports  of  the  islands  would  show  a  uniformity 


260  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

free  from  the  vicissitudes  of  industries  exposed  to 
severe  competition  and  dependent  upon  the  invest- 
ment of  large  capital  and  the  exercise  of  skilled  labor. 
Such  an  inference  is  borne  out  by  the  figures. 

Fifty  years  ago  the  hemp  exports  did  not  amount 
to  twenty  thousand  tons.  At  the  present  time  the 
outgo  is  six  times  as  large,  and  the  tables  show  that 
it  has  been  attained  by  a  constant  and  steady  growth. 
The  irregularities  marked  by  exceptional  figures  are 
no  doubt  due  to  local  and  transitory  conditions  en- 
tirely independent  of  market  influences.  The  great 
falling  off  in  1890,  for  instance,  is  accounted  for  by 
an  exceptionally  dry  season. 

At  the  end  of  the  fifties  exports  of  hemp  had  in- 
creased to  twenty-five  thousand  tons  yearly,  and  they 
fluctuate  around  that  figure  for  the  following  ten 
years.  The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  the  ex- 
tensive introduction  to  agriculture  of  automatic  bind- 
ers, gave  impetus  to  the  demand  for  the  fiber.  The 
upward  trend  of  the  trade  continued  until  the  last 
years  of  the  Spanish  regime.  During  American  oc- 
cupation there  was,  as  might  have  been  expected,  some 
falling  off,  owing  to  the  generally  disorganized  con- 
dition of  labor  and  industry,  but  the  slightiiess  of  the 
declines  is  remarkable,  and  is  doubtless  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  nature  of  the  industry  and  the  com- 
parative ease  with  which  it  could  be  pursued  even 
in  times  of  disturbance.  A  reaction,  however,  sets 
in  with  1901,  and  since  then  a  new  record  average 


MANILA  HEMP.  261 

has  been  made  with  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
thousand  tons.  The  outlook  for  this,  the  leading  ex- 
port of  the  islands,  is  decidedly  promising.  It  still 
enjoys  its  exclusive  position  in  the  market,  the  Philip- 
pines continues  to  be  the  only  country  that  can  pro- 
duce it,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  depend  upon  a 
constantly  increasing  demand.  As  has  been  inti- 
mated, there  is  but  one  danger  threatening  the  pros- 
perity of  this  trade,  and  that  lies  in  a  deterioration 
of  the  quality  of  the  finished  fiber,  such  as  results 
from  carelessness  in  the  process  of  extraction.  This 
detrimental  factor  has  operated  to  the  injury  of  the 
industry  in  the  past,  and  in  1894  the  merchants  of 
Manila  were  obliged  to  take  concerted  action  to  check 
it.  A  recurrence  of  the  same  thing  in  recent  years 
seems  to  demand  drastic  measures  to  preserve  the 
place  which  Manila  hemp  holds  in  the  markets  of 
the  world  and  in  the  trade  of  the  Philippines  and  to 
prevent  the  impairment  of  its  reputation  and  the  pos- 
sibility of  its  sinking  to  the  level  of  inferior  fibers.* 

The  act  of  March  the  8th,  1902,  which  gave  the 
American  importer  the  benefit  of  the  export  duty, 
put  an  end  to  an  anomalous  condition  in  the  trade. 

*  The  interests  of  this  and  other  Philippine  industrfes 
would  be  served  by  a  system  of  governmental  inspection  of 
exports  such  as  exists  in  some  of  the  Australian  govern- 
ments. At  a  time  when  the  islands  are  seeking  new  markets, 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  careless  or  'conscienceless 
exporters  should  be  prevented  from  bringing  their  products 
into  disrepute. 


262  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Previous  to  this  time  the  American  manufacturer  had 
derived  his  supplies  of  the  fiber  largely  from  Great 
Britain,  incurring  the  cost  of  transhipment  and  the 
profit  of  the  middleman.  This  feature  of  the  Manila 
hemp  trade  is  of  long  standing,  its  inception  probably 
dating  from  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  In  1885 
America  made  considerable  purchases  of  the  fiber  in 
the  British  market;  in  1892  nearly  half  of  the  im- 
ports of  that  article  to  the  United  States  came  from 
Great  Britain,  and  as  late  as  1901  America  received 
the  greater  proportion  of  its  supply  from  the  same 
source.  At  present  these  indirect  imports  are  in- 
considerable, and  may  be  expected  to  cease  altogether 
within  the  next  few  years. 

THE    SUGAR   INDUSTRY. 

The  sugar  industry  in  the  Philippines  presents  a 
sorry  spectacle  of  decay,  with  little  encouragement  to 
hope'  for  future  revival.  With  no  other  distinction 
in  the  markets  of  the  world  than  the  discrediting  one 
of  general  inferiority  in  quality,  Philippine  sugar 
has  suffered  terribly  in  the  losing  struggle  of  cane 
sugar  throughout  the  world  during  the  past  twenty- 
five  years.  Adverse  local  conditions  have  combined 
with  market  influences  to  bring  about  a  serious  state 
of  decadence  in  the  industry. 

In  earlier  times,  when  the  cane  of  tropical  countries 
had  no  competitor,  and  when  wasteful  methods  of  ex- 
traction were  universal,  the  Philippine  product  found 


THE  SUGAR  INDUSTRY.  263 

a  ready  market  at  profitable  prices.  The  killing  com- 
petition with  European  bounty-fed  sugars  was  not 
met  in  the  Philippines  by  any  improvement  in  the 
primitive  process  of  production,  and  the  industry 
sank,  as  it  must  have  done  under  any  but  conditions 
of  the  greatest  economy  in  extraction.  The  very  pros- 
perous period  of  the  Philippine  sugar  trade  was 
between  1855  and  1870,  when  high  prices  ruled,  but 
the  response  to  this  stimulus  was  only  moderate,  prob- 
ably on  account  of  the  great  distance  of  the  country 
from  the  points  of  demand.  The  opening  of  the  Suez 
Canal  mitigated  this  disadvantage,  and  the  exports 
immediately  showed  a  marked  increase.  In  the  fif- 
teen years  preceding  the  opening  of  the  Canal  the 
exports  had  ranged  from  forty  to  fifty  thousand  tons. 
From  the  late  sixties  to  the  early  eighties  sugar  ship- 
ments had  quadrupled,  with  prices  fairly  constant  at 
about  three  cents  a  pound,  and  this  may  be  deemed 
the  golden  era  of  the  Philippine  sugar  industry. 

Meanwhile,  the  destructive  competition  with  the 
beet  product  had  already  commenced.  Germany  was 
nearly  doubling  her  output  of  beet  sugar  annually. 
Prices  began  to  fall  immediately  after  1880,  culmin- 
ating in  the  sugar  crisis  of  1885.  The  three  succeed- 
ing years  were  a  time  of  the  greatest  depression  in 
the  industry,  when  production  at  the  ruling  prices 
was  unprofitable.  A  reaction  followed  and  prices  and 
exports  fluctuated  throughout  the  remaining  years  of 
Spanish  rule,  but  never  again  reached  the  figures  that 


264  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

prevailed  previous  to  1880.  The  annual  trade  dur- 
ing these  last  years  approximated  an  average  of  two 
hundred  thousand  tons. 

We  have  summarized  the  experience  of  the  in- 
dustry in  three  consecutive  stages  of  its  existence:  a 
period  of  highly  profitable  prices,  but  small  exports, 
in  pre-Suez  days;  a  period  of  fair  prices,  great  ac- 
tivity and  rapid  growth,  under  the  stimulus  of  access 
to  the  world's  markets  not  yet  surfeited  by  over- 
production ;  and  a  period  of  low  prices  for  fifteen 
years  with  a  nominal  increase  in  exports,  during 
which  the  industry  finds  it  yearly  more  difficult, 
with  its  primitive  methods  and  low-grade  product,  to 
hold  its  own.  In  the  keen  competition  that  has  dis- 
turbed the  sugar  industries  of  the  world  since  1885, 
the  beet  product  has  not  only  had  the  advantage  of 
fostering  bounties,  but  also  of  scientific  inventions, 
tending  to  greater  economy  of  production.  In  a  less 
degree,  as  might  be  expected  of  an  industry  in  the 
hands  of  Oriental  people,  sugar  cane  has  also  been 
the  subject  of  improved  methods,  but  in  this  respect 
the  Philippines  have  lagged  behind  all  other  tropical 
countries.  The  old  stone-mill,  with  its  extraction 
of  only  forty  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  cane  in 
juice,  and  the  ancient  open  kettle,  with  its  low-grade 
product,  are  still  the  predominant  features  of  the  in- 
dustry. That  the  Philippine  sugar  trade,  with  its  anti- 
quated methods,  escaped  extinction  during  the  period 
of  stress  following  1885,  is  explainable  mainly  upon 


THE  SUGAR  INDUSTRY.  265 

the  ground  that  cheapness  of  labor  made  a  small 
margin  of  profit  still  possible.  The  afflictions — 
war,  pestilence,  and  famine — that  have  visited  the 
islands  in  the  years  immediately  following  1896  were 
more  than  sufficient  to  cause  the  collapse  of  the  totter- 
ing industry.  During  American  occupation  the  ex- 
ports of  sugar  have  not  amounted  in  any  year  to  one 
hundred  thousand  tons,  and  we  must  go  back  thirty 
years  in  the  history  of  the  industry  to  find  an  anal- 
agous  period  of  small  production. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  under  scientific 
conditions  of  production,  Philippine  sugar  could  com- 
pete successfully  with  the  beet  and  cane  products  of 
other  countries.  It  is  demonstrable  that  the  adoption 
of  modern  economic  methods  of  extraction  would 
double  the  value  of  the  output,  thus  enabling  the  pro- 
ducer to  meet  the  increased  rate  of  wages  and  secure 
a  satisfactory  profit  at  present  prices.  But  nothing 
short  of  a  complete  reorganization  of  the  industry 
upon  an  up-to-date  basis  can  reinstate  the  sugar  trade 
of  the  islands. 

The  most  important  customers  of  the  Philippines 
for  sugar,  as  well  as  for  hemp,  have  been  the  United 
States  and  the  United  Kingdom.  For  many  years 
following  1855  Australia  was  a  large  purchaser,  but 
with  the  extension  of  production  in  that  country  its 
receipts  of  Philippine  sugar  gradually  fell  off  and 
ultimately  ceased.  In  1890  the  imports  of  the  United 
States  suddenly  dropped  from  one  hundred  and  thirty 


266  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

thousand  tons  in  the  previous  year  to  forty  thousand, 
and  half  the  former  figures  are  more  than  the  ship- 
ment of  any  subsequent  year. 

The  cause  of  this  sudden  dispansion  was  the  Mc- 
Kinley  Act,  which  placed  sugar  upon  the  free  list 
and  put  a  bounty  upon  the  domestic  article.  As  a 
consequence  the  American  importer  was  able  to  pur- 
chase in  all  markets  upon  equal  terms,  whereas  he 
had  previously  been  taxed  according  to  quality.  The 
immediate  effect  was  that  the  low-grade  product  of 
the  Philippines,  which  had  enjoyed  the  quasi-protec- 
tion  of  a  comparatively  low  import  duty,  lost  its  best 
market  and  the  American  trade  was  transferred  to 
the  Dutch  East  Indies,  with  their  superior  output. 
Coincident  with  the  withdrawal  of  American  custom, 
exports  to  the  United  Kingdom  increased,  but  after 
a  few  years  this  trade  diminished  and  has  now  vir- 
tually died  away.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  con- 
stantly increasing  British  consumption  of  the  beet 
product,  which  has  represented  ninety  per  cent,  of 
her  sugar  imports  in  recent  years. 

With  the  disappearance  of  the  twro  customers  upon 
whom  his  trade  depended,  the  Philippine  producer 
has  been  forced  to  look  for  a  new  market,  and  this  he 
appears  to  have  found  nearer  home.  It  is  said  that 
the  taste  for  sugar  among  Oriental  people  has  shown 
a  marked  development  during  recent  years.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  im- 
ports of  that  article  by  China  and  Japan  in  the  past 


THE  SUGAR  INDUSTRY.  267 

decade  have  increased  to  a  surprising  extent.  Previ- 
ous to  the  American  occupation  China  was  only  a 
spasmodic  purchaser  of  Philippine  sugar,  and  con- 
siderable shipments  to  Japan  have  been  made  only 
since  1890.  From  1885,  the  exports  to  Hongkong 
have  been  constant  at  about  thirty-five  thousand  tons 
a  year.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  most  of  these 
shipments  have  been  in  transit  to  China.  Thus  the 
Philippine  sugar  trade  has  since  1885  been  gradually 
shifting  its  field  from  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  to  China  and  Japan.  The  grade  of  the  article 
is  better  suited  to  the  latter  markets  and  there  is 
ground  for  the  belief  that  the  trade  in  the  new  direc- 
tions may  be  held  and  extended. 

A  hopeful  feature  of  the  cane  sugar  industry  was 
created  by  the  Brussels  Convention,  which,  by  remov- 
ing the  advantages  derived  from  the  European  bounty 
system,  has  placed  the  beet  product  upon  a  basis 
of  equal  competition  with  cane.  Despite  his  cruder 
methods,  the  tropical  producer,  with  cheaper  labor, 
can  meet  the  beet  manufacturer  in  a  fair  field  with- 
out favor.  It  is  true  that  the  labor  market  in  the 
Philippines  has  undergone  a  change  in  recent  years 
which  enhances  the  cost  of  the  output,  but  this  disad- 
vantage can  be  offset  by  improvements  in  the  process 
of  production. 

The  great  need  of  the  industry  at  present,  as  it  was 
in  Spanish  times,  is  capital.  Producers  are  stagger- 
ing under  heavy  indebtedness  at  exorbitant  rates  of 


268  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

interest  and  the  prospect  of  effecting  the  reorganiza- 
tion absolutely  necessary  to  put  the  industry  upon  a 
paying  basis,  is  remote  without  outside  assistance. 

The  basic  requirement  of  the  situation  is  further 
tariff  concessions  to  Philippine  sugar  by  the  United 
States.  This  would  afford  it  an  assured  profit  in 
the  world  market,  encourage  the  capitalist,  restore  the 
confidence  of  the  money-lender,  and  make  it  possible 
for  the  planter  to  pay  higher  wages,  install  improved 
machinery,  and  introduce  a  system  of  economic  pro- 
duction. 

Aside  from  the  American  producer,  who  appears 
to  be  quite  unnecessarily  fearful  of  the  impairment 
of  his  interests,  this  plan  has  met  with  general  ap- 
proval. How  long  the  representatives  of  a  favored 
trust,  with  powerful  influence  in  Congress,  may  be 
successfully  able  to  oppose  this,  one  of  the  most  press- 
ing needs  of  the  Philippines,  it  is  impossible  to  sur- 
mise.* That  the  proposed  legislative  action  could  not 
create  a  competition  harmful  to  themselves  seems  to 
be  a  fair  deduction  from  the  fact  that  the  United 


*  The  influence  of  this  same  sugar  clique  may  be  traced  in 
the  miserly  land  act  passed  by  Congress,  which  still  re- 
tains its  original  form  despite  the  urgent  recommendations 
of  the  Commission  for  more  reasonable  concessions.  Under 
the  plea  of  safeguarding  nearly  seventy  millions  of  acres  of 
public  demesne  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  speculators, 
the  limit  of  land  that  may  be  acquired  by  an  individual,  or 
corporation,  is  set  at  less  than  the  quantity  necessary  to 
establish  a  profitable  sugar  plantation. 


THE  SUGAR  INDUSTRY.  269 

States  at  present  consumes  annually  six  times  as 
much  sugar  as  the  Archipelago  exported  in  its  best 
year  and  about  twenty  times  the  amount  of  its  output 
in  recent  times.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
tariff  advantages  in  question  would  not  have  the  effect 
of  transferring  the  entire  Philippine  production  to 
America,  but  that  the  trade  with  the  Orient  would 
be  maintained  at  better  prices,  and,  with  every  rea- 
sonable allowance  for  the  extension  of  the  industry 
under  the  more  profitable  conditions,  it  is  difficult  to 
conceive  of  the  Philippines  producing  an  amount  of 
sugar  equal  to  the  present  American  consumption  of 
the  foreign  product,  which  in  1904  exceeded  seventy 
million  dollars  worth. 

Many  criticisms  have  been  made  of  the  Spanish 
policy  in  the  islands,  and  especially  of  that  policy 
which  operated  to  discourage  their  industrial  develop- 
ment and  the  growth  of  manufactures  that  would  mili- 
tate in  any  way  against  those  of  the  mother  country. 
In  the  face  of  these  export  figures  in  American  times, 
and  the  above-mentioned  opposition  to  relief,  the  ques- 
tion arises  whether,  in  view  of  its  oft-admitted  re- 
sponsibility for  the  welfare  of  the  islands,  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  is  justified  in  sacrificing 
vital  interests  of  the  whole  Philippine  people  at  the 
behest  of  a  small  but  powerful  clique  of  domestic 
sugar  producers.  On  the  one  side  is  a  Trust  enrich- 
ing a  few  millionaires  with  generous  profits ;  on  the 
other  a  country  struggling  for  industrial  advancement 


270  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

in  which  the  revival  of  this  once  prosperous  industry 
would  be  a  god-send  to  tens  of  thousands.  This  is 
one  of  the  many  Philippine  affairs  on  which  Con- 
gressional rhetoric  is  wasted.  What  is  wanted  is 
prompt  and  conscientious  Congressional  legislation. 

TOBACCO. 

For  one  hundred  years  from  1781  tobacco  was  a 
government  monopoly  in  the  Philippines.  Every 
means  was  employed  to  stimulate  production  without 
consideration  for  the  producer.  The  monopoly  owed 
its  inception  to  the  chronic  deficiency  in  the  Insular 
revenues  and  soon  became  an  important  fiscal  asset. 
In  1785  the  revenue  from  this  source  amounted  to 
thirty-nine  thousand  dollars ;  in  1844  it  had  increased 
to  two  and  a  half  millions,  and  at  the  time  of  its 
abolition  in  1882  the  proceeds  of  the  tobacco  sales 
were  sufficient  to  meet  half  the  expenses  of  adminis- 
tration. 

The  official  figures  of  tobacco  exports  are  too  irregu- 
lar to  afford  reliable  data  of  the  annual  production 
and  trade  conditions.  The  output  was  stored  in  the 
government  warehouses  and  released  in  response  to 
market  -  movements,  or  the  exigencies  of  the  govern- 
ment, creating  wide  fluctuations  in  exports  from 
year  to  year.  Spain  has  always  been  the  largest 
taker  of  the  product.  The  United  Kingdom  was  the 
only  other  purchaser  of  the  Philippine  leaf  down  to 
1873,  and  her  consignments  seem  to  have  been  inter- 


TOBACCO.  271 

mittent  and  irregular  in  quantity.  From  the  last 
named  year  shipments  began  to  take  the  direction  of 
the  British  East  Indies  and  China.  The  exports  of 
manufactured  tobacco  have  for  a  long  period  of  years 
averaged  about  one  million  dollars  in  value.  The 
distribution  in  this  case  has  been  much  wider  than 
in  that  of  leaf.  Spain,  where  the  Regie  system  was 
in  vogue,  took  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  Philip- 
pine cigars.  The  British  East  Indies  has  been  the 
largest  consumer  during  the  monopoly  period,  and  in 
the  closing  years  of  its  existence  received  practically 
the  entire  export.  In  the  years  immediately  suc- 
ceeding 1855  China  imported  heavily,  but  the  trade 
declined  rapidly  and  expired  before  1875.  The 
United  Kingdom  and  Australia  also  took  considerable 
quantities  for  a  long  period. 

In  1882  the  monopoly  wras  abolished  with  a  re- 
sultant economic  disturbance  during  the  following 
few  years  of  a  transitory  period  preceding  free  pro- 
duction and  trade. 

In  1885  the  leaf  exports  showed  an  increase  to 
nearly  thirteen  million  pounds,  and  in  1892,  the  best 
year  since  the  monopoly,  amounted  to  twenty-six  and 
three-quarter  millions.  During  the  American  rule 
the  figures  have  shown  a  slight  decline,  with  an  aver- 
age of  about  twenty  millions  of  pounds  in  recent 
years.  In  the  past  decade  Austria-Hungary  has  be- 
come an  important  factor  in  the  leaf  tobacco  trade  of 
the  Philippines.  In  1900  she  purchased,  through  her 


272  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

state  monopoly,  four  and  a  half  million  pounds,  and 
in  succeeding  years  between  two  and  four  millions, 
but  in  1904  the  exports  to  that  country  were  short  of 
one  and  one-third  millions.  As  might  have  been  an- 
ticipated, the  United  States,  aside  from  a  few  experi- 
mental shipments,  has  not  been  able  to  use  the  Philip- 
pine product.* 

There  has  not  been  much  change  in  the  distribu- 
tion, or  quantity,  of  the  exports  of  manufactured 
tobacco  since  monopoly  days.  This  must  not  be 
accepted  as  an  indication  that  production  has  been 
at  a  stationary  figure.  On  the  contrary,  there  seems 
to  have  been  a  great  increase  in  domestic  consump- 
tion under  free  conditions.  The  cigar  and  cigarette 
have  come  into  general  use  among  the  islanders,  and 
it  is  estimated  that  six-sevenths  of  the  population 
smoke,  and  consume  more  than  half  of  the  total  out- 
put of  the  weed.  If  such  is  the  case,  the  stationary 
exports  are  quite  consistent  with  enormous  increases 
in  manufactured  tobacco. 

Coincident  with  the  establishment  of  free  produc- 
tion and  the  removal  of  supervision,  a  deterioration 
in  the  quality  of  the  leaf  began  and  has  continued 

*  There  is  reason  to  believe  that,  even  though  Philippine 
tobacco  be  admitted  free  to  the  United  States,  great  diffi- 
culty will  be  experienced  in  finding  an  extensive  market 
amongst  American  consumers,  who  are  accustomed  to  quali- 
ties in  their  tobacco  very  different  from  those  exhibited 
by  the  Philippine  leaf.  This,  however,  is  an  argument  for 
the  removal  of  the  duty  rather  than  otherwise. 


COPRA.  273 

with  a  consequent  falling  off  in  price,  which  has  had 
a  depressing  effect  upon  the  industry.  Unfortunately 
for  any  hope  of  improvement  in  this  respect  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  leaf  is  carried  on  almost  entirely  by 
small  producers. 

COPEA. 

Copra  is  the  latest  of  any  Philippine  industries  to 
be  developed  to  considerable  extent.  The  facilities  for 
the  extension  of  the  industry  are  practically  unlim- 
ited and  it  gives  great  promise  of  future  prosperity. 

Although  the  cocoanut  has  always  been  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  domestic  economy  of  tropical 
people  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  copra  has 
had  a  commercial  value.  During  the  Spanish  regime 
shipments  of  copra  to  meet  the  limited  demand  of  the 
confectioner  and  soap-maker-  doubtless  went  to  swell 
the  export  figures  of  "coacoanuts,"  but  it  is  not  until 
the  American  period  that  the  article  figures  promi- 
nently in  the  trade  of  the  islands.  The  increased  de- 
mand is  due  to  new  processes  of  converting  copra 
derivatives  into  food  products,  a  business  in  which 
the  manufactures  of  Marseilles  have  become  consum- 
ers of  enormous  quantities  of  the  dried  meat  of  the 
cocoanut. 

The  exports  of  copra  in  1900-1904  average  in 
excess  of  two  and  a  half  million  dollars  annually. 
In  1900  they  exceeded  three  millions,  and  fell  to  half 
that  amount  in  the  following  year,  due  to  insurrec- 

18 


274  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

tionary  disorders  in  the  districts  whence  the  chief 
supply  is  derived.  In  1903  the  figures  approached 
four  millions,  to  decline  again  in  1904  to  nearly  half 
as  much  as  a  result  of  exceptionally  unfavorable  cli- 
matic conditions.  More  than  two-thirds  of  these  ship- 
ments were  made  to  France. 

The  copra  industry  is  particularly  suited  to  the  con- 
ditions which  prevail  in  the  Philippines,  and  a  bright 
future  seems  to  be  in  store  for  it. 

COFFEE. 

The  coffee  exports  of  the  Philippines  ceased  years 
ago  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  trade  of  the 
islands. 

In  1855  about  one  million  and  a  quarter  pounds 
of  the  bean  were  shipped,  and  the  exports  increased 
steadily  until  they  reached  their  maximum,  with 
sixteen  million  pounds,  in  1884.  In  1889  the  ship- 
ments exceeded  thirteen  and  a  half  millions,  but  in 
that  year  the  plantations  were  visited  by  an  insect 
pest  followed  by  a  leaf  blight  with  ruinously  destruc- 
tive effects.  From  that  time  the  output  declined  pre- 
cipitously, and  at  present  is  insignificant  in  amount. 
It  has  been  claimed  for  Philippine  coffee  that  it  is 
equal  to  the  product  of  Java,  but  the  best  prices  ob- 
tained for  it  have  not  sustained  this  estimate.  The 
chief  consumers  of  the  Philippine  article  have  been 
Spain,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  United  States, 
together  with  a  considerable  China-Hongkong  trade 
hard  to  trace  to  the  points  of  consumption. 


COFFEE.  275 

The  revival  of  the  industry  has  been  mooted,  with 
a  suggested  American  import  duty  on  coffee  in  con- 
nection with  free  trade  for  the  Philippine  article. 
The  plan  has  in  its  favor  the  past  record  of  pros- 
perity enjoyed  by  the  industry  and  the  known  suit- 
ability of  soil  and  climate  to  the  production.  On  the 
other  hand  are  serious  adverse  considerations.  A  cof- 
fee plantation  requires  large  outlays  of  capital  and 
ten  or  twelve  years  of  waiting  for  the  maturity  of 
the  trees.  In  the  meantime  there  is  the  ever-present 
danger  of  a  recurrence  of  the  disaster  which  overtook 
the  plantations  fifteen  years  ago.  When  scientific 
safeguards  against  such  calamities  have  been  pro- 
vided, as  they  probably  will  be  ere  long,  the  generous 
profits  in  coffee  culture  will  doubtless  attract  all  the 
necessary  capital,  but  in  the  meantime  the  Philippines 
offer  better  and  less  hazardous  fields  for  the  invest- 
ment of  money.* 


*  Nothing  could  have  been  more  wisely  conceived  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Philippines  than  the  visit  of  the  members  of 
Congress  under  the  guidance  of  Secretary  Taft.  At  the  time 
of  writing  the  party  is  still  in  the  islands,  but  the  effects 
of  their  experience  and  some  idea  of  its  probable  results, 
may  be  gathered  from  the  following  press  report  (August 
16,  1905)  :  "A  majority  of  the  members  of  Congress  have 
been  convinced  that  Philippine  products  ought  to  be  ad- 
mitted free  of  duty  at  our  ports.  Mr.  Hill,  of  Connecticut, 
will  no  longer  oppose  a  removal  of  the  duty  on  tobacco  and 
cigars,  and  Mr.  Shirley,  who  represents  a  tobacco-growing 
district  in  Kentucky,  agrees  with  him.  Opposition  to  the 
free  admission  of  sugar  and  other  products  has  also  been 


276  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  chief  industrial  need  of  the  Philippines  is  a 
cheap  and  expeditious  means  of  inland  transportation. 
The  projected  railway  system  will  supply  this  require- 
ment and  with  its  inception  a  rapid  development  of 
the  resources  of  the  Archipelago  may  be  looked  for. 

THE    TRANSPORTATION    PROBLEM. 

The  Insular  Government  has  been  authorized  to 
accept  bids  for  the  construction  of  1,233  miles  of 
railroad  in  the  islands.  Bidders  must  be  citizens  or 
corporations  of  the  United  States  or  the  Philippines. 
The  roads  will  be  exempt  from  taxation,  but  must 
pay  to  the  Government  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  of 
the  gross  earnings  during  the  first  thirty  years,  and 
one  and  one-half  per  cent,  for  fifty  years  thereafter. 
The  Government  will  guarantee  interest  at  the  rate 
of  four  per  cent,  for  thirty  years  on  first  mortgage 
bonds  covering  nearly  the  entire  cost  of  construction 
and  equipment.* 

There  are  in  operation  two  roads  in  the  islands. 
That  owned  by  the  Compania  de  la  Tranvias  de  Fili- 
pinas  runs  from  the  section  of  Tondo,  in  Manila,  to 


overcome  by  the  statements  of  insular  producers,  who  have 
been  questioned  by  the  visitors  at  several  meetings  held 
for  this  purpose.  Mr.  Grosvenor,  of  Ohio,  says  that  at  the 
coming  session  of  Congress  a  bill  providing  for  the  free 
admission  of  all  Philippine  products  will  be  introduced  and 
supported  by  Mr.  Payne,  the  chairman  of  the  Ways  and 
Means  Committee." 

*  The  routes  of  the  proposed  railroads   are  given  in  a 
later  chapter. 


THE  TRANSPORTATION  PROBLEM.  277 

Malabon,  in  the  province  of  Rizal,  a  distance  of  4.35 
miles.  The  other  running  from  Manila  to  Dagupan, 
in  the  province  of  Pangasinan,  a  distance  of  121.79 
miles,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Manila  and  Dagupan 
Railway  Company,  Limited.  The  former  is  confined 
exclusively  to  passenger  traffic.  During  the  year  1902 
it  carried  562,089  passengers,  and  its  income  was 
$53,965  Mexican.*  The  cost  of  operation  was 
$33,034  Mex.,  leaving  a  gross  profit  of  $20,931  Mex. 
The  value  of  the  entire  property,  including  land, 
roadbed,  rolling  stock,  and  buildings  is  $115,800 
Mex.,  indicating  a  very  low  grade  of  construction 
and  equipment.  The  Dagupan-Manila  Railway  was 
opened  in  1894,  and  although  it  has  suffered  losses 
from  destruction  of  property  during  the  subsequent 
disturbances,  it  is  a  promising  enterprise  with  a 
growing  traffic.  The  gross  income  of  the  company 
during  1902  was  $1,238,235,  and  the  gross  expendi- 
tures $864,532,  leaving  a  gross  profit  of  $373,703 
on  a  capitalization  of  $12,300,000.  During  the  same 
year,  1,104,372  passengers  were  carried  over  an  ag- 
gregate of  23,591,024  miles,  affording  a  gross  revenue 
of  $683,206;  a  total  of  165,760  tons  of  freight  was 
carried  an  aggregate  distance  of  9,706,855  miles, 
and  from  this  traffic  was  derived  a  gross  revenue  of 
$397,699.  The  business  of  the  road  has  increased 
considerably  since  American  occupation. 

*The  exchange  value  of  the  Mexican  dollar  is  fifty  cents 
United  States  currency. 


278  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Manila-Dagupan  road  has  been  authorized  to 
construct  two  additional  lines — one  from  Bigaa,  a  sta- 
tion on  the  existing  line  in  the  province  of  Bulacan, 
to  Cabanatuan,  in  the  province  of  Nueva  Ecija; 
and  the  other  from  a  point  on  the  existing  line  about 
a  mile  north  of  the  Manila  terminus  to  Antipolo,  in 
Rizal  province.  These  two  branches  will  aggregate 
65.87  miles.  The  act  granting  the  franchises  for 
these  roads  requires  the  completion  of  the  former  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  year  1905,  and  the  latter  not 
later  than  March,  1906.  An  electric  road  is  in 
process  of  construction  from  the  municipality  of 
Pozorubio,  in  the  province  of  Pangasinan,  to  Baguio, 
in  the  province  of  Benguet,  a  distance  of  twenty-seven 
miles.  The  report  of  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
work  states  that  the  road  "will  open  up  the  most 
promising  mining  district  in  the  Philippines,  as  the 
mines  of  Benguet  yield  copper  and  gold.  Limestone 
cliffs  furnish  a  fine  quality  of  lime.  Coal  is  found  in 
the  Bued  river  canyon.  Hot  sulphur  and  mineral 
springs  abound.  The  mountains  are  covered  with 
timber,  and  are  crowned  with  forests  of  pine.  Many 
of  the  fruits  and  vegetables  of  the  Temperate  Zone 
are  successfully  cultivated  in  Benguet."  Although 
not  precisely  relevant  to  a  review  of  commercial  and 
industrial  conditions,  it  may  be  stated  in  passing  that 
at  Baguio  will  be  established  a  sanatarium  for  invalid 
soldiers  and  civilians,  and  it  will  become  the  summer 
seat  of  the  Government,  in  other  words,  the  Simla 
of  the  Philippines. 


THE  TRANSPORTATION  PROBLEM.  279 

One  of  the  first  works  undertaken  by  the  Gov- 
ernment upon  the  establishment  of  peace,  indeed 
it  had  been  inaugurated  under  the  military  ad- 
ministration, was  the  improvement  of  the  high- 
way system  of  the  islands.  There  is  no  means  of 
ascertaining  precisely  how  much,  but  several  millions 
have  been  expended  by  the  central  and  provincial  gov- 
ernments in  this  direction,  and  it  is  proposed  to  con- 
tinue the  work  until  every  province  is  amply  supplied 
with  good  roads  and  bridges.  It  is  a  tremendous  task 
in  a  country  which  has  been  conspicuous  for  the 
paucity  of  these  ordinary  avenues  of  communication 
and  one  in  which  the  rains  are  so  destructive.  What 
are  termed  insular  roads,  that  is,  those  running  from 
one  side  to  another  of  an  island,  or  those  connecting 
provinces,  will  be  the  sole  charge  of  the  Insular  Gov- 
ernment. Eoads  which  lie  entirely  within  one  prov- 
ince and  are  of  local  benefit  primarily  will  be  con- 
structed and  repaired  by  the  provincial  board,  for 
which  purpose  a  tax  of  one-eighth  of  one  per  cent, 
on  assessable  land  is  levied.  Where  the  necessity  has 
existed  the  Insular  Government  has  loaned  money  to 
the  provinces  in  a  large  aggregate  amount. 

The  facilities  for  ocean  traffic  between  Manila  and 
foreign  ports  have  been  quite  equal  to  the  requirements 
and  have  responded  readily  to  increased  demands  of 
recent  years.  In  addition  to  the  army  transports,  the 
vessels  of  fourteen  steamship  companies  make  period- 
ical calls  at  Manila  on  regular  schedules.  This  service 


280  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

is  supplemented  by  a  number  of  tramp  steamers  and 
a  few  sailing  ships.  A  noticeable  feature  of  the 
shipping  trade  is  the  scarcity  of  American  bottoms; 
in  fact,  the  flag  of  the  United  States  is  rarely  seen 
afloat  in  Manila  Harbor.  In  the  year  1902  two 
hundred  and  fifty  steamships  visited  Manila,  and  of 
this  total  but  fourteen  were  of  American  register, 
whilst  of  seventeen  sailing  vessels  twelve  flew  the 
American  colors. 

The  open  ports  of  the  islands  are  Manila,  Luzon ; 
Iloilo,  Panay;  Cebu,  Cebu;  Jolo,  Sulu;  Zamboanga, 
Mindanao;  Appari,  Cagayan,  Luzon. 

An  extensive  interisland  commerce  has  been  car- 
ried on  since  the  opening  of  the  islands  to  foreign 
trade  in  1834,  and  it  is  constantly  increasing.  This 
has  been  noticeably  so  since  the  extension  of  the  ex- 
port trade  during  the  American  administration. 
There  were  in  1902  engaged  in  this  coastwise  trade 
1,469  sailing  vessels  and  175  steamers  of  fifteen  tons 
register  and  over.  There  are  a  number  of  smaller 
craft  navigating  the  waters  of  the  Archipelago  which 
can  hardly  be  considered  factors  in  its  commerce,  al- 
though engaged  in  petty  local  traffic. 

During  American  occupation  the  number  of  ports 
and  subports  available  for  interisland  traffic  has  been 
increased  from  63  to  196.  The  Insular  Government 
has  neglected  no  means  to  encourage  and  foster  the 
maritime  traffic  of  the  Archipelago. 

Manila  has  been  in  the  past  one  of  the  least  invit- 


THE  TRANSPORTATION  PROBLEM.  281 

ing  ports  of  call  in  the  East  for  merchant  vessels 
because  of  the  extraordinary  difficulty  and  expense  of 
handling  cargoes,  and  consequently  freight  charges 
to  this  point  have  been  excessive.  The  rates  were 
as  much  from  Hongkong  to  Manila  as  from  Hongkong 
to  San  Francisco,  although  the  distance  in  one  case 
is  ten  times  as  great  as  in  the  other.  As  ocean  ves- 
sels could  not  approach  nearer  than  two  miles  to  the 
shore  at  Manila,  lighters  were  necessarily  employed 
in  loading  and  unloading.  The  harbor,  with  its  one 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  of  coast  line,  was  subject 
to  almost  the  full  force  of  storms,  and  during  the  mon- 
soon season  ships  not  infrequently  lay  eight  or  ten 
days,  incurring  heavy  demurrage,  whilst  awaiting 
an  opportunity  to  discharge  or  take  on  freight. 

The  Insular  Government  has  projected  extensive 
improvements  which  include  the  construction  of  an 
effective  breakwater,  and  an  ample  system  of  docks, 
with  a  deep  water  approach.  The  work  is  being  rap- 
idly pushed  toward  a  conclusion,  and  in  the  near 
future  these  and  other  facilities  will  make  Manila 
the  most  accessible  and  convenient  port  in  the  Orient. 

This  is  only  one  of  several  factors  which  must  make 
for  a  great  expansion  of  the  trade  of  the  Philippines 
in  the  next  decade.* 


*  Tables  showing  the  export  and  import  trade  of  the  Archi- 
pelago for  the  past  fifty  years  are  incorporated  in  the 
Appendix. 


AGRICULTURE. 


VII. 

AGRICULTURE.* 

Musa  Textalis:  Manila  Hemp — Conditions  of  Culture — 
Method  of  Extraction — Expenses  and  Profits  Involved  in 
Henip  Cultivation — Maguey  Fiber — Cotton  Fiber — Cane 
Sugar— Tobacco — Not  a  Promising  Channel  for  Capital — 
A  Proposed  Remedy  for  Present  Depression — The  Cocoa- 
nut  Palm  and  its  Derivatives — Copra  and  Cocoanut  Oil — 
Possibilities  of  the  Industry  Under  Improved  Methods 
— Estimated  Expense  and  Profit  in  Cocoanut  Plantation. 

The  chief  source  of  wealth  in  the  Philippines 
since  the  Spanish  conquest  has  been  its  agricultural 
products,  and  so  they  will  probably  continue  to  be. 
The  soil  of  the  islands  consists  mainly  of  decomposed 
volcanic  rock,  enriched  by  decayed  organic  matter. 
It  is  extremely  fertile,  readily  yielding  generous  crops 
of  tropical  and,  subtropical  growths.  The  range  of 
vegetable  products  is  very  wide.  About  three  hun- 
dred fiber  plants  of  either  commercial  or  domestic 
value  are  found  in  the  Archipelago,  and  the  variety  of 
food  producing  plants  is  great.  Tropical  fruit  trees 
yield  abundantly  with  little  or  no  aid,  while  corn, 
grain,  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  bounteously  re- 
pay cultivation.  There  are  a  number  of  plants  from 

*  Money  values  in  this  and  succeeding  chapters  have  all 
been  reduced  to  their  approximate  equivalents  in  United 
States  currency. 

-,-—,- — -•— ~-    --    -        (285) 


286  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

which  gums,  dyes,  oil  and  medicinal  extracts  may  be 
derived. 

The  chief  products  of  the  soil  are  hemp,  sugar, 
tobacco,  copra  and  rice,  and  of  these  the  first  named 
is  of  foremost  commercial  importance. 

MUSA  TEXTALIS MANILA  HEMP. 

The  musa  textalis  is  a  member  of  the  banana  family, 
and  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  plant  that 
yields  the  edible  banana.  It  is  locally  known  as 
abaca.  The  term  "Manila  hemp"  is  a  misnomer,  but 
is.  thoroughly  established  in  the  trade.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  true  hemp  is  a  bast  fiber,  whereas  abaca  is  a 
structural  fiber.  The  musa  textalis  is  found  only  in 
its  natural  habitat,  the  Philippine  Islands.  Unsuc- 
cessful efforts,  extending  over  the  greater  part  of  a- 
century,  have  been  made  to  cultivate  the  plant  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  and  it  is  a  safe  con- 
clusion that  it  cannot  be  made  to  produce  a  com- 
mercial fiber  elsewhere  than  in  the  Archipelago. 
There,  however,  it  grows  wild  and  under  cultivation 
in  several  of  the  islands.  The  province  of  Albay,  in 
Luzon,  including  the  dependent  island  of  Gatandu- 
anes,  is  the  principal  abaca  district  of  the  Philippines. 
Large  quantities  are  also  produced  in  the  adjacent 
provinces  of  Ambos  Camarines  and  Sorsogon.  Other 
productive  sections  in  Luzon  are  La  Laguna  and 
Cavite  and,  to  a  less  extent,  Bataan  and  Batangas 
provinces.  The  output  is  large  from  the  islands  of 


CONDITIONS  OF  CULTURE.  287 

Leyte,  Samar,  Marinduque,  Masbate,  Romblon, 
Panay,  and  Bohol.  Considerable  quantities  of  abaca 
are  also  produced  in  the  northern  and  southeastern 
portions  of  Mindanao. 

The  fiber  has  undoubtedly  been  used  by  the  natives 
for  centuries,  but  it  is  only  within  the  past  sixty  years 
or  so  that  its  remarkable  tensile  strength,  lightness, 
length,  and  durability  have  become  known  and  ap- 
preciated by  the  commercial  world.  Previous  to  1825 
the  production  was  small  and  practically  none  was  ex- 
ported. With  the  development  of  the  foreign  mar- 
ket the  fields  of  the  petty  cultivator  gave  place  to 
extensive  plantations,  but  the  primitive  methods  of 
the  producers  have  undergone  little  if  any  improve- 
ment. 

The  industry  is  capable  of  great  expansion,  for 
only  a  fraction  of  the  large  areas  suitable  to  the 
growth  of  the  plant  have  been  brought  under  culti- 
vation. 

CONDITIONS  OF  CULTURE. 

For  the  successful  culture  of  the  musa  texialis  fer- 
tile land,  subject  to  a  liberal  rainfall,  in  a  climate  of 
high  humidity,  is  necessary.  The  drainage  must  be 
good,  for  the  plant  will  not  thrive  in  swampy  soil. 
It  should  be  sheltered  from  excess  of  wind  or  sun. 
Abaca  is  easy  to  raise,  requires  little  tending,  and 
is  peculiarly  free  from  liability  to  accidents.  It  is 
not  subject  to  drought;  its  low  stature  and  environ- 


288  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

merit  protect  it  from  the  effect  of  hurricanes;  its 
station  upon  hilly  slopes  safeguards  it  from  inunda- 
tions; fire  cannot  make  headway  against  its  juicy 
leaves  and  moist  stem;  and  it  is  practically  exempt 
from  the  attacks  of  predatory  insects. 

No  scientific  effort  has  been  made  to  develop,  by 
cultivation,  the  desirable  qualities  of  the  plant  and 
the  possibilities  in  this  direction  are  promising,  for 
almost  every  valuable  vegetable  growth,  which  has 
been  the  subject  of  intelligent  investigation  and  ex- 
periment, has  proved  to  be  susceptible  of  more  or  less 
improvement. 

A  plantation  is  started  from  seed  or  suckers.  In 
the  former  case  maturity  is  reached  in  about  three 
years;  in  the  latter  six  months  earlier.  After  this 
stage,  harvesting  is  practically  continuous.  The 
plants  are  set  out  in  rows,  from  two  to  three  yards 
apart  each  way,  with  a  certain  amount  of  herbage 
left  between,  to  prevent  washing  away  of  the  soil. 
Trees  are  left  standing  in  the  field,  or  are  planted,  in 
order  to  furnish  the  requisite  shade  and  to  break 
the  force  of  high  winds.  The  trees  selected  for  this 
purpose  should  have  small  leaves,  that  they  may  not 
create  a  dense  shadow,  and  deep  feeding  roots  that 
will  not  rob  the  young  plants.  The  best  time  for 
planting  is  during  the  rainy  months  of  May-July 
and  September-November.  In  August,  January, 
February,  and  December,  the  heat  of  the  sun  is 
sufficiently  strong  to  injure,  and  perhaps  kill,  the 


METHOD  OF  EXTRACTION.  289 

shoots.  During  growth,  and  after  maturity,  the  plan- 
tation needs  little  attention  beyond  rough  weeding. 
After  cutting,  the  crop  renews  itself  by  means  of 
the  suckers  which  are  thrown  off  by  the  roots  of  the 
original  plant 

METHOD  OF  EXTRACTION 

Harvesting  is  most  expeditiously  effected  by  the 
employment  of  gangs  of  three  laborers.  One  cuts 
the  stalk  even  with  the  ground  and  strips  it.  The 
second,  who  is  usually  a  woman,  splits  the  leaf- 
sheaths  into  sections,  two  or  three  inches  wide,  dis- 
carding the  inner  portions  which  have  an  undue  pro- 
portion of  pulp.  These  strips  are  then  subjected  to 
a  crude  mechanical  process  by  means  of  which  the 
fiber  is  extracted.  The  machine  employed  consists 
of  a  long  block  of  wood,  elevated  upon  legs.  In  the 
center  of  the  block  a  knife  blade  is  attached  and 
arranged  so  as  to  work  in  unison  with  the  action  of 
a  spring  above  it,  or  a  treadle  below.  The  spring 
exerts  a  constant  upward  pressure  upon  the  handle  of 
the  knife  and  so  depresses  the  blade,  whilst  pressure 
upon  the  foot-lever  counteracts  this  effect.  The  strips 
of  leaf -sheath  are  drawn  by  hand  over  the  block  and 
beneath  the  blade,  whilst  the  operator  regulates,  or 
releases,  the  pressure  of  the  latter  by  means  of  the 
lever.  This  process  separates  the  moist  pulp  from 
the  fiber.  It  may  be  repeated  several  times  with 
the  effect  of  producing  a  finer,  and  consequently  more 

19 


290  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

valuable,  fiber,  with,  however,  a  corresponding  dimi- 
nution in  weight.  The  best  fiber  is  produced  by  using 
a  blade  with  a  smooth  edge,  but,  as  serrated  knives 
render  the  operation  easier,  they  are  commonly  used 
at  the  expense  of  quality  in  the  output.  When  the 
process  is  not  thorough  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
juicy  pulp  is  retained.  This  discolors  the  fiber  and 
reduces  its  strength,  but  it  also  increases  the  weight, 
which  is  an  important  consideration  to  the  laborer. 
This  is  a  feature  of  the  industry  that  calls  for  cor- 
rection. Perhaps  the  remedy  lies  in  the  invention  of 
a  machine  which  will  dispense  with  the  present  man- 
ual process  and  turn  out  a  uniform  quality  of  fiber. 
There  have  been  many  futile  attempts  to  devise  such 
a  mechanical  contrivance,  but  it  should  not  be  too 
difficult  an  achievement  for  American  ingenuity. 
The  present  method  of  extraction  is  said  to  waste 
from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent,  of  good  quality  fiber. 
Portability  is  no  less  necessary  than  economy  in  a 
hemp  machine.  The  stalks  of  the  plants  are  very 
heavy  and  within  a  few  hours  of  being  cut  up  the 
leaf -sheaths  must  be  subjected  to  the  knife,  so  that  it 
is  found  more  economical  to  transport  the  apparatus 
than  the  material.  As  the  work  is  done  on  very 
rough  ground  and  generally  upon  mountain  sides,  a 
machine,  to  be  practicable,  must  be  light  enough  to 
be  easily  carried  by  two  men.* 

*  "The  honor  of  having  practically   solved  the  question 
seems     to     have     fallen     to     a     young     American     engineer, 


METHOD  OF  EXTRACTION.  291 

After  extraction,  the  fiber  is  exposed  to  the  sun 
for  a  few  hours  and,  when  sufficiently  dried,  is  loosely 
packed  in  bundles  and  carried  to  the  nearest  market, 
of  which  there  are  several  in  each  hemp  district.  The 
principal  grades  recognized  are  "current,"  "second," 
and  "colored,"  with  several  gradations  in  these  classi- 
fications. 

The  "beneficiary"  system  of  labor  is  in  vogue  in 
the  hemp  districts.  Under  this  system  the  planter 
assigns  to  each  native  cultivator  a  section  of  ground 
on  which  to  raise  and  tend  plants  and  at  intervals  to 
extract  the  fiber.  One-half  of  the  produce  represents 
the  operator's  pay  for  his  labor,  and  at  the  time  that 
he  makes  delivery  to  the  planter  he  receives  the  cur- 
rent local  value  of  his  share.  This  system  appears 
to  have  been  sufficiently  profitable  to  the  capitalist, 
but  it  has  serious  drawbacks.  Under  it  the  planter 
cannot  exercise  sufficient  control  over  his  property 


Robert  Edward  Lindsay.  Doubtless  the  machine  invented  by  Mr. 
Lindsay  will  undergo  many  improvements;  but  in  its  pres- 
ent form  it  is  reported  as  being  capable  of  turning  out  sixty 
pounds  of  first-class  white  hemp  of  uniform  quality,  every 
hour  by  the  labor  of  two  men.  Under  the  existing  system 
an  average  hemp  worker  can  strip  about  forty-four  pounds 
of  fibre  in  a  day."  Brigadier-General  W.  H.  Carter,  U.  S.  A.? 
in  The  North  American  Review,  May,  1905. 

A  similar  claim  has  been  made  for  several  machines 
which  appeared  to  offer  a  solution  to  the  complicated  prob- 
lem, but  it  has  always  transpired,  upon  test,  that  some 
essential  requirement  was  lacking  in  the  device,  or  else  that 
its  operation  was  less  economical  than  hand  labor. 


292  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

and  its  produce.  He  cannot  prevent  the  cutting  of 
immature  plants  and  carelessness  in  extracting  the 
fiber.  When  a  native  cultivator  is  in  urgent  need  of 
a  few  dollars  he  will  often  sacrifice  unready  plants 
and  rush  the  process  of  extraction,  with  the  result 
of  injuring  the  plantation  and  putting  an  unneces- 
sarily low-grade  article  upon  the  market.  However, 
when  all  is  said,  hemp  cultivation  on  a  large  scale  is, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  cocoanut  culture,  the 
most  profitable  and  least  risky  field  for  the  invest- 
ment of  capital  offered  by  the  Philippines  to-day. 

EXPENSES  AND  PROFITS    INVOLVED  IN   HEMP 
CULTIVATION. 

Foreman  gives  some  figures  relating  to  outlay  and 
income  in  hemp  cultivation  which  may  be  of  interest. 
Perhaps  it  is  unnecessary  to  make  any  allowance  for 
the  increased  cost  of  labor,  because  in  an  industry 
of  the  monopolistic  character  of  abaca  prices  can 
always  be  adjusted  to  cover  enhancement  in  cost  of 
production. 

The  labor  of  plant-setting  in  Albay  Province  may 
be  calculated  at  $1.50  per  1,000  plants;  the  cost  of 
shoots  at  from  25  cents  to  50  cents  per  100.  Fre- 
quently, however,  the  capitalist  will  contract  for  the 
laying  out  of  a  plantation,  on  the  basis  of  $5  for  100 
live  plants,  to  be  counted  at  the  time  of  full  growth, 
instead  of  paying  for  shoots  and  labor.  In  case  this 


HEMP  CULTIVATION.  293 

is  done  it  is  customary  to  make  advances  to  the 
3ontractor. 

The  following  is,  subject  to  the  qualification  made 
above,  a  conservative  statement  of  the  investment, 
profit,  expenses,  etc.,  of  operating  a  plantation  in 
Albay,  but  as  the  figures  are  based  upon  those  of  a 
plantation  of  half  the  size  it  may  be  assumed  that  a 
corporation  or  individual  with  the  capital  and  facili- 
ties for  operating  upon  this,  or  a  larger,  scale  would 
produce  fiber  at  less  cost  and  consequently  at  greater 
profit. 

Plantation  of  1,000  pisosones,  or  3,472  acres,  of 
land  over  two  years  planted  with  shoots  and  therefore 
ready  to  cut  within  one  year  from  date  of  purchase. 
No  ploughing  needed ;  no  fallow  land.  Each  pisoson 
(3.472  acres)  producing  per  annum  10  piculs  of 
abaca  (equivalent  por  acre  3.60  cwts.,  yielding  from 
3,472  acres  624.50  tons),  or  a  total  output  of  10,000 
piculs,  making  5,000  bales,  in  the  assumed  propor- 
tion of  80  per  cent.  Corriente,  10  per  cent  Segunda, 
10  per  cent.  Colorado: 

INVESTED  CAPITAL. 

1,000  pisosones  of  land  at  $50  per  pisoson $50,000.00 

Store  for  1,000  piculs  of  abaca,  with  ample  space.  3,000.00 
Bale  press  and  shed  for  pressing  200  bales  per  day  2,500.00 
Plot  of  land  for  store  and  sun-drying  ground  ....  700.00 

4  horses  and  two  vehicles    300.00 

Unrecoverable  advances  to  200  men  at  say  $5  each      1,000.00 


Total  invested  capital   $57,500.00 


294  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

WORKING  EXPENSES. 

Salaries :  Manager   $1,800.00 

2  European  bookkeepers  at  $750  each 1,500.00 

4    Native    storekeepers    at    $15    and    $10    per 

month     GOO.OO 

8  Plantation  overseers  at  $10  per  month 960.00 

4  Native  messengers  at  $4  per  month 192.00 

Labor :  for  pressing  5,000  bales  at  9%  cents ;  plus 
2  mats  per  bale  at  87%  cents  per  100;  and  14 

split  rattans  per  bale  at  87%  cents  per  1,000 4G8.75 

Waste  in  store  of  hemp  mats,  rattan,  etc 1G3.50 

Stolen  by  laborers,  say  200.00 

Maintenance,  or  depreciation,  of  press-value  at  8 

per  cent,  per  annum 200.00 

Fire  insurance  on  Store,  Bale,  Press,  and  Shed,  at 

2  per  cent,  on  $5,500 110.00 

Keep  of  four  horses  per  annum  96.00 

Manager's  traveling  expenses  about  the  province..  200.00 

Taxes  of  various  kinds  1,000.00 

Office  expenses,  telegrams,  postage,  stationery,  etc. .  150.00 

Freight  to  Manila  at  12%  cents  per  picul 1,250.00 

Loading  at  2%  cents  per  bale 125.00 

Insurance  at   Manila  at   %   per  cent,   on  $32,200 

(Manila  selling  value  plus,  say  15  per  cent.)    ..  159.00 
Manila  broker's  commission  including  landing,  dis- 
charging, etc.,  at  2  per  cent,  on  sale  value 541.25 

Manila  storage  at  1%  cents  per  bale,  per  month, 

say,  for  half  a  month  37.50 


Total  working  expenses   $9,75aOO 


RETURNS. 

Sale :  Half  of  the  above  output  of  10,000  piculs  be- 
longs to  the  planter ;  the  other  half  is  purchased 
from  the  laborer;  therefore:  5,000  piculs  sold 
thus: 


HEMP  CULTIVATION.  295 


4,000  piculs  (Corriente)  at  $4.25;  500  piculs 
(Segunda)  at  $3.87%  ;  500  piculs  (Colorada) 
at  $3.12i/2  $20,750.00 

Gain  in  price  on  5,000  piculs,  laborers'  share 
bought  at  75  cents  per  picul  under  Manila 

market  price    3,750.00 

Manila  firms  pay  50  cents  per  bale  for  pressing  . .     2,500.00 


Total  receipts    $27,000.00 


OUTCOME. 

Sale  in  Manila   $27,000.00 

Deduct  working  expenses  9,753.00 


Net  profit  (25  per  cent,  on  total  capital)*  ..$17,247.00 


In  addition  to  the  enormous  quantity  of  hemp 
that  is  exported  annually,  a  large  amount  is  consumed 
in  domestic  manufactures,  especially  of  cloth.  The 
most  extensively  used  of  these  fabrics  is  known  as 
sinamay,  a  product  entirely  of  hemp  fiber.  Jusi 
cloth  is  made  from  a  mixture  of  fine  hemp  and  pine- 
apple-leaf fiber,  sometimes  with  an  admixture  of  silk. 
A  very  beautiful  diaphanous  material  called  lupis  is 
manufactured  in  small  quantities  from  a  special 


*  Thirty  per  cent,  net  is  generally  accepted  as  the  stand- 
ard profit  in  hemp  cultivation.  American  methods  of  organ- 
ization will  doubtless  work  extensive  economies  in  this  and 
other  industries.  Before  long  we  shall  see  the  planter, 
exporter,  importer,  and  possibly  carrier,  combined  in  one 
corporation. 


296  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

quality  of  hemp,  which  is  much  finer  and  more  diffi- 
cult to  extract  than  the  commercial  grades. 


MAGUEY  FIBER. 


Maguey  is  the  name  applied  to  the  fiber  of  the 
agave  americana,  or  century  plant.  The  aggregate 
of  fibers  produced  by  the  agave  family  is  a  large  item 
in  the  world's  output  of  fibers.  In  1891  about  eighty 
thousand  tons  of  raw  maguey  fiber,  valued  at  nine 
million  dollars,  entered  the  United  States  alone. 

The  agave  americana  is  cultivated  on  several  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  but  not  nearly  to  the  extent  that 
it  might  be  with  profit.  In  1901  the  exports  of 
maguey  amounted  to  less  than  nine  hundred  tons, 
valued  at  about  one  hundred  dollars  a  ton.  In  sub- 
sequent years  these  figures  have  increased  consider- 
ably, and  although  the  trade  is  still  very  small,  the  in- 
dustry exhibits  a  tendency  to  expand.  There  is  a 
ready  market  for  the  fiber  at  profitable  prices.  It 
is  used  extensively  in  Europe  and  the  countries  of 
both  North  and  South  America  in  the  manufacture 
of  ship's  ropes  and  cables,  in  the  making  of  ropes  for 
mines,  for  lines,  nets,  weavings  for  hammocks,  etc. 
With  increased  production,  the  Philippines  should 
be  able  to  compete  with  Central  America  in  the 
trade,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  desir- 
able markets  for  this  fiber  might  be  opened  up  in 
some  of  the  Oriental  countries. 

A  number  of  machines  have  for  several  years  been 


COTTON  FIBER.  297 

used  extensively  in  Mexico,  Central  America  and  the 
West  Indies  for  the  extraction  of  sisal  fiber  from 
agave  sisalana.  This  plant,  though  producing  a 
coarser  fiber  than  agave  americana,  is  so  nearly  like 
it  in  the  size  and  texture  of  the  leaves  that  no  doubt 
some  of  these  machines  could  be  adapted  to  the  ex- 
traction of  maguey.  The  present  method  is  by  ma- 
ceration, followed  by  rubbing  and  scraping.  The 
essential  principle  of  the  machines,  which  clean  one 
hundred  thousand  leaves  and  upwards  a  day,  is  that 
the  pulpy  substance  is  scraped  from  them  without 
their  being  fermented,  or  macerated,  thus  saving  con- 
siderable time  and  labor. 

COTTON    FIBER. 

Cotton  is  grown  in  various  parts  of  the  Archipelago, 
but  not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  create  an  export 
trade.  The  most  productive  district  is  Ilocos  Norte. 
At  one  time  a  long  staple  fiber  was  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  the  province.  A  good  quality  of  cloth  was 
made  from  it  and  exported  in  considerable  quantities. 
At  the  instigation  of  the  Government  this  trade  was 
neglected  in  favor  of  tobacco,  and  subsequent  efforts 
to  revive  the  industry  have  met  with  only  partial  suc- 
cess. Cotton  spinning  and  weaving  is  at  present  car- 
ried on  in  Ilocos,  solely  with  a  view  to  meeting  local 
demands.  The  fabric  is  produced  from  home-made 
looms  of  the  roughest  description,  tEe  weavers  being 
women. 


298  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  to  what  extent  local 
produce  enters  into  the  domestic  consumption  of  cot- 
ton fiber,  but  one  hundred  tons  would  probably  be  a 
high  estimate,  and  that  is  an  insignificant  figure 
beside  the  amount  imported. 

There  are  localities  in  the  Philippines  suitable  to 
the  growth  of  cotton,  and  the  general  conditions  are 
favorable  to  its  cultivation,  so  that  the  industry  may 
be  expected  in  time  to  develop,  at  least  to  the  extent 
of  supplying  a  much  greater  proportion  of  the  domes- 
tic demand. 

In  several  provinces  of  the  Philippines  the  pine- 
apple is  grown  for  the  exceptionally  fine  fiber  which 
is  derived  from  the  leaves.  The  fabrics  called  "pina" 
and  "rengue"  are  used  in  large  quantities  in  the 
islands  and  are  becoming  popular  in  both  Europe  and 
America.  The  current  prices  of  the  fabrics  range 
from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  cents  a  yard,  and  a 
ton  of  the  fiber  brings  about  $150  in  the  London 
market.  Pineapple  fiber  has  several  highly  commend- 
able qualities,  but  as  about  twenty  thousand  leaves 
must  be  handled  to  produce  fifty  pounds  of  it,  the  in- 
dustry is  not  likely  to  assume  commercial  importance 
until  extraction  can  be  effected  by  the  more  economical 
agency  of  machinery. 

CANE  SUGAR. 

After  thirty  years  of  prosperity,  the  sugar  indus- 
try of  the  Philippines  fell  upon  evil  days,  and  since 


CANE  SUGAR.  299 

1896  it  has  been  engaged  in  a  bitter  struggle  for  its 
very  existence.  When  one  considers  the  accumulated 
misfortunes  of  the  planters  during  recent  years,  it  is 
to  wonder  that  any  of  them  have  had  heart  to  sustain 
the  conflict  and  to  wish  them  heartily  the  better  luck 
that  they  deserve.  First  came  the  killing  competition 
of  the  beet  product,  followed  by  continual  fluctuations 
in  the  price  of  cane  sugar;  then  war,  rinderpest, 
cholera,  famine,  and  locusts.  Under  this  weight  of 
disasters  the  industry  was  crushed  out  in  many  sec- 
tions, and  in  1901  the  entire  crop  of  the  Archipelago 
amounted  to  only  two  million  piculs,*  of  which  three- 
quarters  was  produced  in  Negros  Occidental. 

The  needs  of  the  industry  are  threefold:  (1)  Ad- 
mission of  the  product  to  the  United  States  free; 
(2)  investment  of  capital;  (3)  establishment  of  the 
most  improved  methods  of  production.  The  first  is 
the  all-essential  factor,  and  a  realization  of  it  would 
be  followed  by  the  other  desiderata  in  the  natural 
course  of  things.  Under  present  conditions  the 
planter's  profit  barely  pays  interest  upon  capital  in 
Negros  where  the  process  of  manufacture  is  more  eco- 
nomical than  elsewhere. 

Sugar  production  requires  a  greater  outlay  for  its 
successful  prosecution  than  any  other  agricultural 
enterprise  available  in  the  Philippines.  In  order 
to  start  a  hacienda,  land  must  be  purchased,  and  one 
hundred  acres  would  be  a  small  plantation.  This, 

*  A  picul  equals  137%  pounds. 


300  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

in  Negros,  would  cost  from  $35  to  $70,  according  to 
whether  it  was  cleared  or  not,  and  would  yield  from 
200  to  300  tons  of  cane.  It  would  be  necessary  to 
erect  buildings  and  install  machinery;  to  purchase 
draft  animals  and  implements ;  and  to  make  advances 
to  laborers.  The  initial  expenses  of  establishing  a 
one-hundred-acre  plantation  would  probably  be  about 
$25,000,  aside  from  the  working  capital,  which  would 
be  nearly  half  as  much.  Wages  have  doubled,  and 
the  price  of  everything  that  enters  into  the  manufac- 
ture of  sugar  has  increased  in  recent  years  so  that, 
whilst  the  cost  of  producing  a  picul  of  sugar  was  about 
$1.50  ten  years  ago,  it  is  now  twice  as  much. 

In  Negros,  European  mills  are  in  operation  almost 
exclusively,  but  there  is  not  such  a  thing  as  the 
modern  refining  plant  in  the  islands.  Elsewhere  than 
in  Negros  the  antiquated  cattle  mill  is  the  rule.  The 
process,  too,  in  Negros  is  superior  to  that  in  general 
use,  giving  a  much  greater  percentage  of  extraction 
than  the  average  of  other  sections. 

In  the  northern  provinces  the  sugar  plantations  are 
worked  upon  the  sistema  de  inquilinos,  that  is,  the 
tenant,  or  "beneficiary,"  system.  In  the  Visayas 
the  plan  of  day  labor  prevails,  and  this  might  be 
the  better  arrangement  but  for  the  fact  that  the  prac- 
tice of  making  advances  is  inseparable  from  it.  In 
order  to  secure  the  required  field  hands  the  planter 
is  often  obliged  to  pay  several  weeks  wages  before  a 
stroke  of  work  is  done,  and  the  greatest  caution  is 


TOBACCO.  301 

necessary  to  avoid  heavy  losses.  On  large  estates  it  is 
often  found  advisable  to  employ  subdivisional  man- 
agers who  are  allowed  an  interest  in  the  enterprise. 

Students  of  conditions  in  the  Philippines  and  econ- 
omists who  have  investigated  the  sugar  situation  all 
arrive  at  the  same  conclusion,  which  is,  that  the  salva- 
tion of  the  industry  depends  upon  relief  legislation, 
and  that,  failing  such  aid  the  export  trade  is  in  serious 
danger  of  extinction.*  The  planters  do  not  look  for 
a  large  export  to  the  States,  but  free  or  preferential 
entry  of  their  product  here  would  insure  better  prices 
for  it  in  the  Oriental  markets. 
TOBACCO. 

All  the  commercial  tobacco  of  the  Philippines  is 
grown  in  northern  Luzon,  and  the  best  of  it  in  the 
provinces  of  Cagayan  and  Isabela.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  leaf  is  raised  in  the  Visayas,  but  it  is  of 
a  poor  quality,  quite  unfit  for  any  but  the  local 
market. 

The  Cagayanes  have  not  yet  learned  to  appreciate 
fertilizers,  and  so  they  prefer  the  bottom-lands  to 


*  There  is  promise  of  legislation  favorable  to  the  Philip- 
pines by  Congress  early  in  1906.  It  is  probable  that  all  the 
insular  products  will  be  placed  upon  the  free  list,  with  the 
exception  of  sugar  and  tobacco,  upon  which  25  per  cent,  of 
the  present  impost  will  be  retained.  Secretary  Taft  has 
under  serious  consideration  the  establishment  in  Manila  of 
a  bank  on  the  plan  of  the  Egyptian  Agricultural  Bank. 
Such  an  institution  would  solve  many  problems  and  give 
new  life  to  agricultural  enterprise. 


302  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

higher  ground  for  growing  tobacco,  although  fields  in 
the  former  are  frequently  inundated  to  the  injury 
or  destruction  of  the  crops.  Seed  beds  are  prepared 
between  July  and  November,  according  to  whether 
the  plants  are  to  be  set  in  high  or  low  land ;  and  trans- 
planting takes  place  from  six  weeks  to  two  months 
after  sowing.  The  beds  should  be  carefully  irrigated 
and  protected  against  excessive  heat  and  rain  by 
means  of  portable  bamboo  shelters,  but  this  is  rarely 
done,  except  upon  plantations  which  are  conducted  by 
Europeans.  In  the  days  of  the  monopoly  the  native 
was  compelled  to  take  these  and  other  measures  for 
the  benefit  of  the  plant,  but  now,  according  to  the 
Governor  of  Cagayan,  "he  simply  sows  the  seed  and 
leaves  the  rest  to  Providence." 

The  ordinary  methods  of  ploughing,  planting,  hill- 
ing, and  topping  are  followed  more  or  less  carefully, 
according  to  the  energy  or  intelligence  of  the  indi- 
vidual cultivator.  The  tobacco  worm  is  the  bane  of 
the  planter  here  as  elsewhere.  The  family  of  the 
farmer  are  out  from  daybreak  until  8  or  9  o'clock 
fighting  the  pest  and  again  from  sunset  until  dark, 
or  perhaps  later  if  the  moon  serves.  The  more  care- 
ful growers,  and  the  hired  laborers  of  the  larger 
plantations  carry  on  the  work  by  night  with  torches. 
The  worms  originate  from  a  small  white  night  moth 
which  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  leaf.  It  is  possible  that 
a  remedy  might  be  found  in  the  strong  acetyline 
lights  which  have  been  effectively  used  in  India  to 
lure  locusts  and  destructive  beetles  to  their  death. 


TOBACCO.  303 

If  the  process  of  planting  is  haphazard,  that  of  cur- 
ing is  much  more  so  with  the  generality  of  cultivators. 
Hardly  ten  per  cent,  of  them  use  curing  sheds.  The 
majority  expose  the  leaf  to  the  sun  until  it  loses  its 
green  color  and  then  hang  it  in  the  house  until  drying 
is  completed.  Where  a  shed  is  used  it  is  usually 
nothing  more  than  a  nipa  roof  on  posts.  Sometimes 
movable  walls  of  bamboo  mat  are  added.  In 
monopoly  days  the  Government  erected  large  curing 
sheds  at  different  points  and,  in  addition,  required 
each  planter  to  build  a  small  one  at  his  own  expense. 

After  drying,  the  leaves  are  piled  to  allow  fermenta- 
tion to  take  place.  They  are  then  sorted  by  women 
and  made  up  into  hands  of  ten  leaves  each.  Ten 
hands  are  rolled  into  a  bundle  and  tied  together. 
Forty  of  these  bundles  go  to  a  bale,  which,  therefore, 
contains  four  thousand  leaves.  Five  grades  are  recog- 
nized by  buyers,  but  the  classification  is  somewhat 
elastic,  especially  when  the  demand  is  good.  The  leaves 
of  the  first  class  should  be  forty-five  centimeters  in 
length,  and  clean  and  sound ;  those  of  the.  second 
class  thirty-nine,  and  of  equal  quality  to  the  former; 
those  of  the  third  are  also  first  quality  leaves,  twenty- 
six  centimeters  in  length;  the  fourth  class  are  defec- 
tive leaves,  twenty-four  centimeters  long ;  and  the  fifth 
class  somewhat  shorter  and  of  the  same  character  as 
the  fourth.  If  a  bundle  of  first  class  length  con- 
tains six,  or  more,  low-grade  leaves  it  is  put  in  the 
second  class;  if  the  number  of  impaired  leaves  ex- 
ceeds twelve,  it  goes  to  the  third  class;  and  if  they 
exceed  twenty,  to  the  fourth. 


304  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  buyers  put  the  leaf  through  a  final  process  of 
fermentation  to  improve  the  color,  and  re-sort  them 
with  the  object  of  attaining  a  higher  classification 
than  that  upon  which  they  were  bought;  they  are 
then  repacked  in  bales  of  three  quintals  (about  300 
pounds)  each  and  carried  to  Aparri,  whence  they  are 
shipped  to  Manila. 

NOT  A  PROMISING  CHANNEL  FOR  CAPITAL. 

Hon.  G.  Gonzaga,  Governor  of  Cagayan,  who  is  in- 
terested in  the  business,  gives  some  figures  on  cost  and 
returns  which  would  apply  to  a  plantation  run  with 
hired  labor.  The  estimate  is  based  on  one  hectare 
(2.471  acres)  of  land,  and  it  may  be  supposed  that  an 
operation  upon  the  scale  of  one  hundred  hectares 
would  show  some  economy  over  these  figures,  but  prob- 
ably not  much,  with  the  same  methods.  One  hectare 
of  low  land  is  valued  at  $100  at  least,  and  of  high  land 
at  $50. 

Labor  and  animals  would  be  required  for  plough- 
ing the  .seed  bed  and  the  field ;  for  tending  the  former 
and  transplanting  the  shoots.  Four  men  would  be 
needed  for  forty  days  in  caring  for  the  plants  during 
growth,  hilling,  and  topping,  and  removing  worms. 
Next,  there  would  be  the  work  of  cutting  and  trans- 
ferring the  leaves  to  the  drying  shed.  After  that,  sort- 
ing, fermenting,  and  baling. 

Mr.  Gonzaga's  estimate  of  the  cost  of  this  labor  is 
say  $75  gold,  and  he  concludes  that  the  operation 


CHANNEL  FOR  CAPITAL.  305 

on  the  present  basis  of  production  would  result  in  a 
loss  of  about  $8.80. 

The  Governor  admits,  however,  that  very  much 
better  returns  are  possible.  Like  capitalists  in  other 
agricultural  industries  he  complains  of  the  unaccus- 
tomed increase  in  the  price  of  labor,  to  which  there 
has  hardly  been  time  for  adjustment.  It  is  rarely, 
he  says,  that  a  hectare  produces  fifty  bales.  On  the 
best  lands  the  plant  only  yields  an  average  of  fifteen 
leaves,  which  would  give  thirty-seven  bales  and  twenty 
hands.  He  adds,  however,  that  if  the  tobacco  is  cul- 
tivated as  it  should  be  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  secure 
fifty  bales — three  bales  of  the  first  class,  five  of  the 
second,  eight  of  the  third,  ten  of  the  fourth  superior, 
nineteen  of  the  fourth  current,  and  five  of  the  fifth. 
On  this  basis  the  output  would  be: 

INCOME. 

Proceeds  from  tobacco  leaves  from  one  hectare  of 
land: 

3  bales,  first  class  $21.38 

5  bales,  second  class 22.50 

8  bales,  third  class  16.00 

10  bales,  fourth  class,  superior 10.00 

19  bales,  fourth  class,  current 14.25 

5  bales,  fifth  class 1.25 

Total  receipts  85.33 


This  is  only  about  11%  per  cent,  return  on  the 
working  capital,  and  makes  no  allowance  for  interest 

20 


306  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

on  the  money  sunk  in  land,  buildings,  and  draft  ani- 
mals, which  would  amount  to  about  $350  per  hectare. 
In  the  crop  of  1903  the  proportion  of  the  different 
classes  of  tobacco  produced  in  the  province  of  Caga- 
yan  was  as  follows : 

First  class,  1.2  per  cent.,  or,  in  a  crop  of  50  bales, 
0  bales,  24  hands. 

Second,  3.1  per  cent.,  or,  in  a  crop  of  50  bales,  1 
bale,  22  hands. 

Third,  6.5  per  cent.,  or,  in  a  crop  of  50  bales,  3 
bales,  10  hands. 

Fourth,  superior,  11.7  per  cent.,  or,  in  a  crop  of  50 
bales,  5  bales,  34  hands. 

Fourth,  ordinary,  31.1  per  cent.,  or,  in  a  crop  of 
50  bales,  15  bales,  22  hands. 

Fifth,  46.4  per  cent,  or,  in  a  crop  of  50  bales,  23 
bales,  8  hands. 

The  figures  do  not  seem  to  invite  the  investment  of 
capital  in  the  direct  cultivation  of  tobacco  in  the 
Philippines.  In  1883,  the  year  after  the  abolition 
of  the  monopoly,  a  company  was  formed  in  Spain 
styled  "Compania  General  de  Tabacos  de  Filipinos" 
with  a  capital  of  $15,000,000  gold,  for  the  purpose  of 
growing  and  dealing  in  tobacco.  It  established  large 
plantations  and  factories  and  entered  into  extensive 
operations,  including  the  manipulation  of  other  pro- 
duce. The  venture  was  a  failure,  but  the  result  may 
be  attributed  in  large  measure  to  bad  management  and 
lack  of  experience  of  local  trade  conditions. 


PRESENT  DEPRESSION.  307 

The  estimates  of  expense  in  the  foregoing  cal- 
culations do  not  apply  to  the  small  native  culti- 
vator, in  whose  hands  the  greater  part  of  the  in- 
dustry rests  at  present.  He  secures  free  labor  al- 
most entirely.  The  whole  family  is  impressed  into 
service,  and  each  grower  helps  others  in  the  vicinity. 
When  the  time  for  ploughing  arrives  five  or  six  neigh- 
bors come,  with  their  implements  and  carabao,  and 
afterwards  their  women  folk  and  children  aid  in  the 
transplanting,  and  the  work  is  done  in  a  few  days. 
This  labor  is  paid  for  in  kind.  After  transplanting, 
the  cultivator  leaves  the  care  of  the  field  to  his  wife 
and  children,  who  also  cut  the  leaves  and  attend  to 
the  curing  and  sorting.  Of  course,  such  a  method 
must  give  crude  results,  but  it  is  highly  economical, 
and  the  native  tobacco  farmer  considers  the  receipts 
from  his  patch  clear  profit.  He  takes  no  account  of 
money  invested  in  land,  or  animals,  nor  ever  thinks 
of  forming  a  sinking  fund  for  emergencies.  If  he 
has  a  good  year  he  spends  the  proceeds ;  if  a  bad  one 
follows  he  has  recourse  to  the  Chinese,  or  Filipino, 
leaf  traders  for  a  loan,  at  fifty  per  cent,  interest, 
payable  from  the  next  crop.  If  the  succeeding  crop 
fails  to  meet  expectations  he  becomes  more  deeply  in- 
volved and  in  all  probability  ultimately  loses  his  land. 

A  PROPOSED  REMEDY  FOR  PRESENT  DEPRESSION. 

The  tobacco  industry,  like  almost  every  other,  has 
suffered  from  the  series  of  calamities,  which  have  be- 


308  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

fallen  the  Philippines  in  recent  years,  and  the  present 
situation  is  one  of  critical  depression.  Mr.  Gonzaga 
suggests  a  remedy  which  would  involve  the  introduc- 
tion of  capital  in  what  might  be  a  profitable  field, 
if  the  operations  were  in  the  hands  of  thoroughly  ex- 
perienced men.  The  Governor's  idea  is  the  establish- 
ment of  what  he  calls  an  "agricultural  bank/'  but 
which  would  necessarily  develop  into  a  trading  com- 
pany with  a  very  wide  scope.  The  company  would 
"lend  money  to  the  farmers  on  mortgage  at  a  mod- 
erate rate  of  interest,  say  six  or  eight  per  cent.  The 
bank  could  engage  in  the  tobacco  industry,  both  as  a 
means  to  assure  payment  of  its  credits  as  well  as  to 
improve  the  price  of  the  article,  and  destroy  the 
monopoly  of  the  commercial  companies.  For  this 
purpose  the  bank  should  have  agents  and  branches  in 
the  markets  of  Europe  and  America  for  the  exporta- 
tion of  tobacco  and  for  the  importation  of  rice*  and 
other  articles  needed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  prov- 
ince. In  order  to  supply  the  lack  of  work  animals, 
and  to  provide  against  droughts,  the  bank  could  en- 
gage in  the  work  of  irrigating  the  fieldsf  to  be  used 
in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  and  cereals ;  of  bringing 


*  Doubtless  Governor  Gonzaga  intends  to  intimate  that 
agencies  for  the  exportation  of  rice  could  be  established  in 
Asia.  American  rice  cannot  be  imported  to  the  Archipelago 
with  profit,  although  it  may  be  after  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal. 

fThe  niggardly  terms  of  the  Philippine  Land  Act  are 
expanded  somewhat  in  favor  of  irrigation  companies. 


PRESENT  DEPRESSION.  309 

in  plows  and  portable  irrigation  pumps,  and  of  work- 
ing the  fields  for  a  small  compensation  in  money  or 
crops/'*  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  completion  of 
the  railroad  through  the  tobacco  district  will  make 
for  a  return  of  prosperity  to  the  industry. 

Opinions  differ  widely  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
Philippine  product,  and  this  may  be  largely  due  to 
the  fluctuations  of  the  quality  since  the  cessation  of 
the  monopoly.  Many  experts  maintain  that  the  best 
Philippine  tobacco  is  excelled  only  by  the  Havana 
leaf  for  cigars,  and  those  who  become  accustomed  to 
the  soft  flavor  of  the  Manila  cheroot  are  apt  to  prefer 
it  to  anything  else.  The  author  of  the  "Soverane 
Herbert  says:  "After  Cuba,  the  Philippines  are  the 
smoker's  paradise.  The  tobacco  is  second  only  to 
that  of  the  Pearl  of  the  Antilles,  and  all  the  people 
smoke.  Contrary  to  the  usual  Eastern  custom,  limi- 
tations are  set  upon  smoking  by  children.  The  Fili- 
pinos do  not  allow  children  under  ten  years  of  age  to 
smoke.  The  lady  of  the  house  lays  in  a  stock  of 
tobacco  as  regularly  as  an  English  housekeeper  gets 
in  her  coal.  The  people  make  their  own  cigars,  as 
smokers  at  home  roll  their  own  cigarettes  (hence  the 
form  of  Manila  cheroots),  and  boys  and  girls  twist 
their  cigars  as  deftly  as  a  hardened  English  cigarette- 
smoker.  It  is  a  common  sight  in  Manila  to  see  father 


*Tlie  suggestion  is  met  to  some  extent  by  Secretary  Taft's 
proposed  agricultural  bank, 
t  The  Soverane  Herbe.    W.  A.  Penn,  New  York,  1901. 


310  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

and  mother  sauntering  along,  each  smoking  a  cigar 
and  followed  by  their  children,  also  happily  puffing 
the  divine  herb.  The  Negritos  of  Luzon  smoke  in  a 
curious  fashion,  holding  the  lighted  end  of  the  cigar 
in  their  mouth.  Some  Anglo-Indians  also  practice 
this  method,  by  which  it  is  claimed  smoking  is  more 
enjoyable  and  the  secretion  of  nicotine  avoided. 
With  a  little  practice  all  danger  of  burning  the  mouth 


is  overcome." 


THE  COCOANUT  PALM  AND  ITS  DERIVATIVES. 

The  cocoanut  palm  is  the  most  useful  of  all  tropical 
growths.  It  enters  largely  into  the  domestic  economy 
of  all  Oriental  people,  and  its  products  are  adapted 
to  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  The  nut  yields  a 
nutritious  food  and  the  milk  a  healthful  beverage. 
From  the  sap  a  spirituous  liquor  is  distilled.  The 
fiber  answers  many  purposes,  and  the  trunk  is  cut  into 
lumber,  whilst  the  leaves  serve  for  thatch.  Aside 
from  these  and  other  utilities,  valuable  commercial 
products  are  derived  from  the  tree.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  latter  are  copra,  cocoanut  oil  and  coir. 

The  cocoanut  grows  throughout  the  Archipelago,  and 
there  are  extensive  areas  particularly  well  adapted 
to  its  cultivation.  The  site  of  a  plantation  should 
be  well-watered,  alluvial,  or  sedementary,  ground. 
Seed  nuts  are  used,  after  they  have  sprouted,  and  are 
set  in  soil  that  has  been  ploughed  and  manured. 
The  nuts,  or  shoots,  should  be  planted  in  straight  rows 


COPRA  AND  COCOANUT  OIL.  311 

about  nine  meters  apart,  allowing  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  trees  to  the  hectare.  The  trees  will 
begin  to  bear  fruit  in  the  seventh  year,  and  will  reach 
maturity  in  the  fifteenth  year.  The  earlier  crops  are 
gathered  with  extension  cutters,  or  from  ladders. 
When  the  tree  has  become  hard,  shoulders  may  be  cut 
in  it  for  climbing. 

COPRA  AND   COCOANUT   OIL. 

In  the  chapter  on  Commerce  mention  is  made  of 
the  infant  trade  in  copra  and  its  rapid  expansion. 
Copra  is  the  dried  meat  of  the  nut,  from  which  is 
derived  the  oil.  It  is  now  extensively  used  in  the 
preparation  of  such  dietetic  compounds  as  "vegeta- 
line,"  "cocoline,"  and  other  "butters,"  which  are 
free  from  the  objections  attaching  to  animal  margarin, 
and  have  a  much  higher  fusion  point  than  dairy  but- 
ter, a  very  desirable  quality  in  the  tropics.  The 
manufacture  of  these  vegetable  compounds  is  extend- 
ing rapidly,  creating  a  constantly  increasing  demand 
for  the  raw  material.  One  of  four,  or  five,  large 
factories  in  Marseilles  had  an  average  output  of 
twenty-five  tons  a  month  in  1900,  and  is  now  turn- 
ing out  upwards  of  seventy  thousand  tons  a  year. 

Cocoanut  oil  is  not  at  present  an  article  of  export 
from  the  Philippines,  but  the  local  consumption  is 
very  large.  At  least  one  light  is  kept  burning  all 
night  in  every  Filipino  house  in  the  country,  and 
cocoanut  oil  is  used  for  the  purpose.  It  is  made  in 


312  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

thousands  of  homes  by  a  rude  process  which  answers 
the  requirements.  Cocoanut  oil  is  also  the  street 
luminant  in  out-of-the-way  barrios.  It  enters  largely 
into  the  culinary  processes  of  the  natives,  and  is  used 
for  medicinal  purposes  and  by  the  women  as  a  hair 
dressing.  Students  of  the  industrial  economy  of 
the  Philippines  have  frequently  urged  that  the  oil 
should  be  exported  instead  of  the  copra.  Under  pres- 
ent conditions  the  larger  part  of  the  profit  in  the 
trade  accrues  to  the  manufacturer  at  the  expense  of 
the  grower.  There  are  several  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  adopting  the  suggested  reform,  which  would  only 
be  feasible  in  the  case  of  a  corporation  carrying  on 
the  industry  upon  a  fairly  large  scale.  The  copra 
buyers,  of  course,  raise  every  obstacle  to  endeavors 
to  ship  oil,  and  are  said  to  have  contrived  to  influence 
discriminatory  freight  rates  against  it.  The  most 
important  factor  in  the  question,  however,  is  pre- 
sented by  the  problem  of  finding  a  market  "for  the 
press-cake,  which  is  a  valuable  by-product  of  the 
manufacture.  This  cake,  which  is  the  residue  of 
the  copra  after  the  oil  has  been  expressed,  is  used 
in  Europe  as  a  cattle  food,  and  brings  such  good 
prices  that  the  copra  buyer  can  afford  to  pay  the 
full  value  of  the  copra,  on  the  basis  of  its  yield  of 
oil,  with  confidence  that  the  resultant  press-cake  will 
pay  incidental  costs  and  leave  a  generous  profit  to  the 
manufacturer.  There  is  no  demand  for  the  press- 
cake  in  the  islands. 


POSSIBILITIES  OF  THE  INDUSTRY.  313 

In  this,  as  in  other  Philippine  industries,  the 
process  followed  is  crude  and  behind  that  of  other 
Oriental  countries,  where  machinery  is  employed  with 
economical  results.  Taking  a  nut  in  his  hands,  the 
operator  sharply  strikes  it  upon  a  spearhead  which 
is  fixed  in  the  ground,  and  thus  removes  the  husk.  An 
average  man  will  husk  one  thousand  nuts  in  a  day  in 
this  manner,  but  twice  as  many,  and  even  more,  are 
sometimes  handled  by  particularly  dexterous  work- 
men. Another  man  splits  the  nuts  in  half  with  a 
stroke  of  a  bolo.  The  fragments  are  then  laid  in  the 
sun  for  a  few  hours,  when  the  flesh  is  easily  removed. 
Sun  drying  for  a  day  follows,  after  which  the  meat  is 
exposed  upon  a  bamboo  griddle  to  the  heat  of  a  slow 
fire,  composed  of  the  shells  and  husks.  After  being 
broken  into  smaller  pieces  the  product  is  ready  to  be 
shipped  as  marketable  copra. 

POSSIBILITIES  OF  THE  INDUSTRY  UNDER  IMPROVED 
METHODS. 

Modern  plants,  as  operated  in  India  and  other  conn- 
tries,  employ  machinery  to  husk  the  nut,  crush  the 
shell,  to  remove  and  winnow  the  fiber;  to  rasp  and 
macerate  the  meat  and  to  compress  the  residue.  In 
the  Philippines  no  account  is  taken  of  the  husks, 
shell,  or  fiber,  although  they  are  valuable  by-products, 
the  last  in  particular  being  extensively  used  for  coir 
matting,  ship's  cables,  the  covering  of  electric 
cables,  etc. 


314  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

W.  S.  Lyon,  of  the  Philippine  Bureau  of  Agri- 
culture, has  expressed  the  opinion  that  "notwithstand- 
ing the  cheapness  of  labor,  it  is  only  by  employing  a 
mill  well  equipped  with  decorticating,  rasping,  hy- 
draulic-crushing, and  steam-boiling  machinery,  and 
with  facilities  to  convert  the  residue  to  feeding 
or  other  uses,  that  one  may  hopefully  enter  the  field 
of  oil  manufacture  in  these  islands  in  competition 
with  copra-buyers."  He  goes  on  to  show  the  saving 
in  the  fiber  item  alone  under  such  conditions.  Esti- 
mating sixteen  quintals  of  spinning  fiber  and  five 
quintals  of  bristle  fiber  from  every  ten  thousand 
husks,  rating  the  cost  of  manufacture  at  half  the 
selling  price,  and  adding  20  per  cent,  to  cover  freight 
and  commission,  we  have  at  $80  gold  per  ton,  selling 
price,  a  balance  of  $55.63  per  hectare.  Deduct  $7, 
the  cost  of  fertilizers  to  compensate  for  the  removal 
of  ten  thousand  husks  from  the  soil,  and  we  have  a 
net  profit  of  about  $50  per  hectare. 

With  the  outlay  of  about  $2,000  in  machinery 
and  power,  the  output  of  a  grove  of  four  thousand 
trees  could  be  scientifically  handled  and  the  enhanced 
profit  might  be  expected  to  pay  for  the  plant  in  one 
year. 

Mr.  Lyon  thinks  that  the  "present  conditions  pre- 
sent especially  flattering  attractions  to  cocoanut  grow- 
ers capable  of  undertaking  the  cultivation  upon  a 
scale  of  some  magnitude.  The  present  production 
of  copra  (estimated  at  278,000  plculs  in  1902)  is 


IM  PROVED  METHODS.  315 

assurance  of  a  supply  sufficient  to  warrant  the  erec- 
tion of  a  high-class  modern  plant  for  the  manufacture 
of  the  ultimate  (the  'butter')  products  of  the  nut." 
The  prospects  of  such  an  enterprise  would  be  in- 
creased by  the  certainty  of  a  local  market  in  the  Phil- 
ippines for  most  of  the  output.  The  average  value 
of  the  best  grades  of  copra  in  the  Marseilles  market 
is  $54  gold  per  English  ton.  The  jobbing  prices 
January  3,  1903,  of  the  refined  products  were,  for 
each  ton  of  copra : 

Butter  fats    $90.00 

Residual  soap  oils  21.00 

Press  cake   5.20 


$116.20 

The  difference  represents  the  profit  per  ton,  less 
the  cost  of  manufacture.  The  profitable  operation 
of  such  a  plant  would  call  for  a  plantation  at  least 
300  acres  in  extent. 

There  is  no  agricultural  enterprise  afforded  by  the 
Philippines  in  which  the  returns  are  greater  or  more 
assured  than  the  cultivation  of  the  cocoanut.  The 
process  is  simple  and  the  crop  is  practically  guaran- 
teed. The  tree  is  subject  to  comparatively  few  dis- 
eases or  accidents,  its  enemies  are  neither  numerous 
nor  difficult  to  circumvent.  The  demand  for  the 
product  is  continually  enlarging,  and  such  changes  as 
are  likely  to  occur  in  the  trade  features  of  the  industry 
will  probably  be  in  favor  of  the  planter. 


316  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

ESTIMATED   EXPENSE    AND    PROFIT    IN    COCOANUT 
PLANTATION. 

The  following  estimate  of  outlay  and  profit  is  based 
upon  the  conditions  in  the  district  of  La  Laguna  and 
Tayabas,  where  the  nearest  approach  to  systematic 
culture  prevails.  It  may  be  accepted  as  a  guide  to 
prospective  planters,  although  the  figures  for  different 
districts  vary  and  sometimes  those  for  the  different 
localities  in  the  same  district.  The  calculation,  like 
all  others  in  these  chapters,  is  on  the  basis  of  United 
States  currency. 

The  cocoanut  lands  of  the  provinces  in  question 
are  of  three  grades,  valued  at  about  $25,  $12.50  and 
$5  per  unimproved  hectare  for  the  first,  second  and 
third  class,  respectively. 

Formerly  it  was  the  practice  to  plant  trees  about 
five  thousand  to  the  hectare,  whereas,  at  present,  it  is 
customary  to  place  three  thousand  five  hundred  at 
the  most  in  that  area.  It  is,  however,  more  conven- 
ient to  use  the  former  units  of  computation. 

Plantations  of  twenty  hectares,  or  larger,  are  gen- 
erally laid  out  and  worked  upon  the  tenant,  or  "bene- 
ficiary," system.  The  planter  apportions  the  estate 
between  five  tenants,  each  of  whom  plants  the  trees 
upon  the  section  assigned  to  him.  The  title  to  half 
the  trees  thus  planted  remains  in  the  tenant  until  he 
has  been  paid  for  them  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  cents 
apiece  at  the  end  of  a  stipulated  period,  generally 
seven  years.  After  that  time  the  full  ownership  of 


COCOANUT  PLANTATION.  317 

I 

the  plantation  is  vested  in  the  proprietor  of  the  land. 
The  owner  of  the  land  furnishes  the  seed,  implements, 
and  animals,  necessary  for  the  work ;  the  tenant  pre- 
pares the  land,  plants  the  seed  and  tends  the  grove 
until  the  trees  come  into  bearing.  In  the  meanwhile, 
the  latter  may  grow  crops  in  the  spaces  between  plant- 
rows,  using  the  landowner's  animals  without  charge. 
With  the  beginning  of  the  fruitful  stage  of  the  enter- 
prise a  new  agreement  is  made.  If  the  nuts  are  to 
be  sold  in  a  fresh  state  one-fifth  of  the  crop  goes  to 
the  tenant  as  remuneration  for  harvesting  it.  If 
copra  is  produced,  the  tenant  receives  one-third  of 
the  output.  In  both  cases  transportation  is  effected 
at  the  expense  of  the  proprietor. 

The  plan  of  operating  a  plantation  with  hired  labor 
is  quite  unknown  to  the  industry,  but,  with  plenty  of 
draft  animals  and  labor-saving  farm  implements,  it 
could  be  operated  profitably.  Under  such  conditions 
one  man  could  look  after  eight  hectares  and  do  it  more 
efficiently  than  he  now  tends  half  that  area. 

Omitting  labor,  then  the  outlay  upon  twenty  hec- 
tares of  first-class  land  planted  with  five  thousand 
trees  will  be  as  follows: 

20  hectares  of  land  at  $25  $500 

5  carabao  at  $50   250 

5,000  seeds  at  $10  per  thousand  50 

Interest  at  10  per  cent,  on  investment  for  seven  years.  5(30 

Taxes  at  three-eighths  of  1  per  cent 15 

Purchase  of  2,500  trees  at  25  cents  025 


Total  investment  $2,000 


318  .      THE   PHILIPPINES. 

The  first  crop  will  be  harvested  in  the  seventh  year, 
after  which  the  production  will  increase  slowly,  but 
steadily,  for  seven  more  years,  when  the  full  maturity 
of  the  plants  is  reached.  The  average  yield  of  the  elev- 
enth year,  which  is  fifty  nuts  per  tree,  may  be  taken 
as  a  fair  basis  for  the  calculation  of  annual  income 
during  the  eight  years  preceding  full  growth.  Thus, 
a  grove  of  five  thousand  trees  will  afford  a  crop  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  nuts.  If  these  are  sold 
at  the  current  local  price  of  $10  per  thousand,  and 
deducting  the  one-fifth  shares  of  the  tenants,  the  pro- 
prietor will  derive  from  his  plantation  an  annual 
income  of  $2,000  on  an  investment  of  an  equal 
amount.  In  the  fifteenth  year  and  thereafter  each 
tree  will  give  six  harvests  a  year  of  fifteen  nuts,  or 
an  annual  total  of  ninety,  thus  bringing  the  yearly 
output  of  the  plantation  up  to  four  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  nuts,  having  a  gross  value  of  $4,500. 

These  returns  are  only  enjoyed  from  the  best  lands. 
Trees  in  lands  of  the  second  class  will  give  an  aver- 
age of  sixty  nuts  per  annum,  whilst  uplands  of  the 
third  grade  will  not  yield  more  than  half  that 
quantity. 

It  is  not  possible  to  make  so  close  a  calculation 
upon  the  results  of  copra  production,  because  the 
yield  of  meat  per  one  thousand  nuts  varies  greatly 
with  the  locality  and  conditions  of  growth  and  the 
methods  employed  in  the  manufacture.  In  the 
provinces  under  consideration,  however,  four  piculs 


COCOANUT  PLANTATION.  319 


(a  picul  is  equivalent  to  ISY1/^  pounds)  per  one  thou- 
sand nuts  is  a  conservative  estimate. 

Upon  this  basis  twenty  hectares  of  first  class  land 
will  yield  one  thousand  eight  hundred  piculs,  having 
a  present  local  value  of  $4  per  picul.  Deduct  the 
tenants'  one-third  shares  from  the  total  receipts  of 
$7,200,  and  we  have*  a  gross  income  of  $4,800  for 
the  planter. 

The  cost  of  transportation  must  come  out  of  these 
returns  before  net  profit  can  be  determined.  At 
present  all  copra  is  brought  down  to  the  coast  on  pack 
animals,  and  in  some  instances  the  expense  of  car- 
riage amounts  to  as  much  as  one-fourth  the  price  of 
the  manufactured  article.  However,  this  is  an  item 
that  will  be  reduced  with  the  extension  of  the  system 
of  roads  and  minimized  shortly  for  the  districts  that 
may  be  fortunate  enough  to  be  tapped  by  the  railroad. 


AGRICULTURE. 

(  CONTINUED.) 


21 


VIII. 

AGRICULTURE. 

(  CONTINUED. ) 

Method  of  Coffee  Culture — The  Promise  of  Benguet  Coffee — 
Rice — Cacao  Cultivation  and  its  Possibilities — Detailed 
Statement  of  a  Cacao  Plantation— Estimate  of  Expenses 
and  Income  of  Sixteen  Hectares  of  Cacao — Minor  Prod- 
ucts, Indigo,  Maize,  Zacate,  Teosinte — Bamboo  and  Nipa 
Palm — The  Primitive  Methods  of  Philippine  Agriculture 
— The  Filipino  Considered  as  a  Laborer— The  Field  for 
Americans  in  the  Islands. 

Coffee  appears  to  have  been  introduced  to  the  Archi- 
pelago by  the  Spanish  missionaries.  Its  systematic 
cultivation  was  commenced  in  the  early  part  of  the 
last  century.  In  the  eighties  it  had  attained  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  exports  of  the  Philippines,  but  since 
1889  the  output  has  gradually  fallen  off  until  at 
present  it  is  merely  nominal.  The  greater  part  of  the 
production  was  in  the  provinces  of  Batangas,  Cavite, 
and  Tayabas,  whilst  a  considerable  quantity  of  an 
inferior  grade  came  from  Mindanao.  In  the  hoped- 
for  revival  of  the  industry  it  is  more  than  possible 
that  Benguet  will  be  the  center  of  production,  both 
as  regards  quality  and  quantity. 

The  most  prominent  planter  in  Batangas  was  Don 
Jose  Luz,  whose  influence  and  example  gave  a  great 
impetus  to  the  growing  of  the  berry.  We  are  in- 
debted to  the  account  of  his  son,  Hon.  Simeon  Luz, 

(323) 


324  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  present  Governor  of  Batangas,  for  most  of  the 
following  details  of  coffee  culture  in  the  Lipa  district. 

METHOD  OF  COFFEE   CULTURE. 

As  a  preparation  to  the  establishment  of  a  planta- 
tion the  seed  of  the  madre  de  cacao  is  sown  at  regu- 
lar intervals.  After  a  year  the  young  trees  have 
reached  a  sufficient  height  to  afford  the  requisite  shade 
for  the  coffee  plants,  which  are  set  out  in  the  inter- 
vening spaces.  From  time  to  time  the  protecting 
trees  are  pruned  and  some  of  them  removed  in  order 
to  regulate  the  shade.  Many  careless  cultivators  shirk 
this  precaution  with  a  consequent  deterioration  of  the 
product.  The  neglect  has  two  questionable  advan- 
tages; the  trouble  of  checking  the  trees  is  avoided 
and  the  growth  of  weeds  in  the  dense  shade  is  less 
than  it  otherwise  would  be. 

Six  years  usually  elapse  before  the  profits  from  a 
plantation  offset  the  cost  of  caring  for  it  for  one 
year,  but  Mr.  Luz  expresses  the  opinion  that  "by 
adopting  modern  methods  the  time  of  fruition  may 
be  advanced  one  or  two  years."  According  to  the 
methods  in  vogue,  a  plantation  of  average  fertility 
will,  with  good  care,  yield  from  twelve  to  twenty 
piculs  per  hectare.  The  cost  of  laying  out  one  hec- 
tare in  madre  de  cacao  and  coffee,  including  material 
and  labor,  will  amount  to  about  $30. 

The  plant  gives  three  crops — between  August  and 
September,  in  October,  and  in  November,  but  per- 


METHOD  OF  COFFEE   CULTURE.  325 

haps  this  should  be  considered  as  one  continuous  har- 
vest. The  berry  is  picked  by  hand,  but,  as  the  high- 
est branches  of  the  tree  cannot  be  reached,  the  har- 
vester draws  them  down  with  a  hook  and  so  holds 
them  with  his  foot  whilst  gathering  the  fruit.  Of 
course  this  method,  unless  followed  with  the  utmost 
care,  works  injury  to  the  plantation.  Unfortunately 
the  coffee-picker  receives  his  remuneration  in  the 
form  of  one-fifth  of  the  produce  he  handles,  and  the 
inducement  is  to  secure  as  great  a  weight  of  berries 
as  possible  without  regard  to  the  damage  inflicted  in 
the  process. 

The  usual  method  of  drying  is  to  pile  the  berries 
for  twenty-four  hours  whilst  they  ferment,  and  then 
to  spread  them  in  a  cement  enclosure,  called  a  bilaran, 
until  they  have  become  hard  enough  to  resist  the  ac- 
tion of  the  pestle  which  is  used  in  cleaning.  This  is 
one  of  the  features  of  the  industry  that  need  reform- 
ing. It  is  both  tedious  and  wasteful.  The  berries 
sometimes  lie  for  thirty  to  fifty  days  before  they 
become  hard  enough  and  are  apt  to  rot  in  the  mean- 
while. 

The  cost  of  airing,  sifting,  and  sorting  one  picul 
of  coffee  is  about  fifty  cents.  The  cost  of  weeding 
and  caring  for  a  plantation  varies  with  the  degree 
of  culture  devoted  to  it.  A  fair  average  is  perhaps 
$5  a  year  per  hectare.  The  crop  should  run  from 
twelve  to  twenty  piculs  of  berries  per  hectare,  but,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  actual  figures  are  more  generally 


326  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

from  six  to  ten.  This  is  due  to  shiftlessness,  as  ex- 
hibited in  failure  to  reduce  the  shade,  inefficient  weed- 
ing, etc. 

The  prices  secured  in  the  Manila  market  for  Batan- 
gas  coffee  in  1899  ranged  from  $12.50  to  $17.50  per 
picul. 

It  is  significant  of  the  unscientific  and  haphazard 
methods  that  characterize  all  the  industries  of  the 
Philippines  that  the  worms  which  destroyed  the  coffee 
trees  in  1889  had  been  known  to  the  planters  since 
the  inception  of  coffee  culture  and  had  done  more  or 
less  damage  every  year.  To  quote  Mr.  Luz,  "this 
damage  was  so  small,  however,  that  no  one  bothered 
about  seeking  a  remedy  for  an  evil  that  he  did  not 
believe  could  cause  a  complete  destruction  of  all  cof- 
fee plantations.  But  in  1889,  to  the  great  surprise 
and  fear  of  all,  it  was  observed  that  all  the  planta- 
tions of  the  province  were  attacked.  That  year  saw 
the  total  loss  of  the  crop  and  the  death  of  almost 
all  the  coffee  plants  throughout  the  territory  which 
Lipa  comprises." 

After  this  achievement  the  worms  disappeared  and 
two  years  later  new  branches  sprang  from  the  denuded 
trunks.  The  budding  hopes  of  the  planters  were 
quickly  shattered,  however,  for  simultaneously  with 
the  revivification  of  their  trees  the  blight  appeared 
upon  the  leaves.  Thoroughly  discouraged  and  de- 
spairing of  a  revival  of  the  industry,  the  owners  of 
coffee  lands  put  them  under  the  plough  and  planted 


THE   PROMISE  OF  BENGUET   COFFEE.  327 

sugar,  rice,  and  corn.    Hardly  one  hectare  in  a  thou- 
sand of  the  former  plantations  remains  in  coffee. 

THE  PROMISE  OF  BENGUET  COFFEE. 

The  natural  conditions  in  Benguet  are  admirably 
adapted  to  the  successful  growth  of  the  plant;  the 
product  is  of  an  exceptional  quality,  comparing  favor- 
ably with  Mocha  and  Java  in  the  opinion  of  .experts; 
the  blight  has  never  appeared  in  the  province;  the 
demand  for  the  Benguet  berry,  at  highly  profitable 
figures,  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  supply,  and  is 
likely  to  remain  so  for  many  years ;  and  the  climate 
is  a  delightful  one  for  Europeans  and  Americans. 

In  the  words  of  Governor  Pack,  "the  only  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  making  coffee  cultivation  a  most  profit- 
able industry  is  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  suitable 
labor.  The  question  of  labor  will  depend  entirely 
upon  the  individual.  The  cost  of  labor  for  hacienda, 
or  ranch,  purposes  will  average  from  five  to  ten  cents 
gold  a  day,  depending  upon  the  kind  of  labor  required 
and  the  age  and  sex  of  the  laborer.  As  these  coffee 
plantations  now  in  the  province  have  been  planted 
and  cared  for  mostly  by  the  women,  and  at  odd 
moments  when  they  were  not  otherwise  occupied, 
it  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  cost  of  making  or 
caring  for  a  coffee  plantation,  but  it  is  usually  esti- 
mated by  growers  who  are  so  far  civilized  as  to 
figure  on  profit  and  loss,  that  the  coffee  trees  after 
an  average  of  five  years  should  net  the  owner  twenty- 


328  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

five  cents  gold  each  year.  These  trees  may  be  planted 
six  feet  apart.  This  coffee  sells  in  the  market  at 
Benguet  to-day  at  from  $6  to  $7.50  gold  a  cavan* 
which  should  weigh  about  sixty-seven  pounds." 

It  would  appear  that,  with  coffee  at  $12  per  picul 
in  Manila,  the  grower  under  present  methods  would 
make  a  profit  of  about  sixteen  per  cent,  on  the  capital 
invested.  Allowance  must,  however,  be  made  for 
bad  years  and  twenty  per  cent,  is  probably  a  fair 
deduction  to  cover  that  contingency.  But  it  is  gen- 
erally conceded  that  under  an  improved  system  of  pro- 
duction the  crop  might  be  augmented  at  least  one- 
fifth  without  material  increase  of  outlay.  The  price 
of  labor  does  not  affect  the  calculation  greatly,  since 
a  large  part  of  the  work  is  done  on  the  share  plan. 
In  any  case  the  recent  enhancement  in  wages  should 
be  more  than  offset  by  the  reduction  in  transporta- 
tion cost  which  will  follow  the  opening  of  the  railroad. 
The  Insular  Bureau  of  Agriculture  is  conducting  ex- 
periments writh  a  special  kind  of  coffee  in  Lipa,  and 
it  is  confidently  believed  that  the  result  will  be  to  re- 
instate the  industry  which  was  formerly  the  chief 
source  of  wealth  of  this  once  prosperous  district. 
Planters  are  also  looking  to  this  Bureau  for  the  dis- 
covery of  preventive  measures  against  the  inroads  of 
T7orms  and  blight.  Meanwhile  Benguet  seems  to  offer 
the  likeliest  field  for  the  production  of  the  berry. 

*  This  would  give  approximately  from  $12  to  $15  a  picul 
of  137^  pounds. 


THE  PROMISE  OF  BENGUET  COFFEE.  829 

Coffee  was  introduced  to  the  Province  of  Benguet  in 
1875,  and,  after  experiments,  was  found  to  thrive 
on  the  plateaus  at  an  altitude  of  four  or  five  thousand 
feet.  In  1881  the  Spanish  governor  ordered  all  the 
natives  of  the  province  to  engage  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  plant.  This  met  with  the  active  opposition  of  the 
Igorots,  who  destroyed  the  plantations  in  Daklan 
and  undid  the  work  of  years.  It  happened  about  this 
time  that  the  natives  of  Kabayan  were  under  an  Igo- 
rot  chief  of  enlightened  ideas  and  great  influence  over 
his  people.  This  young  chief  visited  Manila  and 
other  places  in  an  investigation  of  the  coffee  indus- 
try, and,  reaching  the  conclusion  that  it  would  afford 
a  profitable  field  for  the  labor  of  his  subjects,  induced 
them  to  plant  extensively.  In  a  few  years  this  tribe 
excited  the  envy  of  its  neighbors  by  its  comparative 
wealth,  derived  from  the  new  enterprise.  The  Igorots 
of  Daklan  have  endeavored  to  retrieve  their  former 
opportunity  by  planting  coffee  trees,  and  in  a  few 
years  the  district  should  produce  large  crops. 

Governor  W.  F.  Pack,  of  Benguet,  estimates  the 
yield  of  a  plant  six  years  old  at  "three  pounds  of 
good  coffee"  per  year,  but  this  is  surely  an  over- 
sanguine  expectation.  In  Peru,  where  coffee  is  grown 
at  the  -same  elevation  as  at  Benguet  and  under  some- 
what similar  climatic  conditions,  the  average  annual 
crop  is  one  pound  per  tree,  whilst  in  the  Philippines 
ten  ounces  is  a  high  average.  If  we  assume  that  the 
Governor's  figures  were  intended  to  refer  to  the  green 


330  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

berry  and  allow  for  the  fifty  per  cent,  difference  in 
weight  between  it  and  the  dried  bean,  we  have  an  esti- 
mate too  high  to  accept  without  explanation. 

The  product  of  the  Benguet  highlands  is  of  excel- 
lent quality  and  has  always  found  a  ready  market. 
The  entire  output  has  heretofore  been  taken  by  the 
Tabacalera  Company  and  shipped  to  Spain,  where  it 
always  has  commanded  fancy  prices.  These  have 
doubtless  in  a  measure  been  due  to  the  limited  supply 
and  will  probably  decline  somewhat  with  increased 
production.  The  Insular  Government  is  doing  all  in 
its  power  to  foster  and  encourage  the  industry  amongst 
the  natives  of  the  province. 

The  price  paid  by  the  Tabacalera  Company  for 
Benguet  coffee  on  the  plantation,  is  equivalent  to 
$12  to  $15  per  picul,  but  $1  per  picul  should  be 
added  for  cost  of  carriage  to  Manila,  when  wre 
have  figures  which  compare  well  with  the  high  quo- 
tations for  Batangas  coffee  in  Manila  during  1899. 
It  is  almost  certain  that  a  company,  or  individual, 
operating  upon  a  fairly  large  scale  and  selling  in 
the  open  market  would  secure  much  higher  values  for 
its  product,  which  would  presumably  be  of  a  superior 
grade.  These  greater  returns,  and  the  practice  of 
certain  economies  possible  in  the  production,  would 
permit  of  the  payment  of  higher  wages,  and  since  Ben- 
guet will  be  connected  by  rail  with  Manila  and  the 
intervening  provinces  before  these  lines  are  in  print, 
the  solution  of  the  labor  problem  should  not  be  dif- 
ficult to  find  in  the  importation  of  field-hands. 


RICE.  331 

Rice,  the  staple  article  of  food  of  the  natives  of 
the  Philippines,  as  it  is  of  most  Oriental  people,  is 
grown  more  or  less  in  every  province  of  the  Archi- 
pelago. It  was  the  earliest  agricultural  industry  of 
the  Islands,  and  rice  culture  is  to-day  the  occupation 
in  which  the  Filipino  finds  the  greatest  pleasure  and 
that  in  which  he  acquits  himself  most  creditably. 

For  many  years  rice  was  an  important  article  of 
export,  but  since  18  76  it  has  been  imported  in  large 
quantities,  and  particularly  so  in  the  period  of  Amer- 
ican occupation.  The  large  increase  in  purchases  of 
foreign  rice  during  recent  years  has  been  due  mainly 
to  the  rinderpest,  which  carried  off  thousands  of 
carabao,  upon  which  the  cultivators  depended  for  the 
preparation  of  their  fields.  In  many  provinces — 
probably  in  most — the  abandonment  of  rice  has  re- 
sulted in  positive  gain,  for  the  natives  have  gen- 
erally turned  their  ground  to  better  account  by  put- 
ting it  into  higher-priced  produce. 

There  are  several  species  of  the  grain  raised  in  the 
Philippines,  but  they  come  under  two  general  heads, 
namely,  macan,  or  lowland  rice,  and  paga,  or  upland 
rice.  The  former  is  a  much  finer  quality  in  which  the 
white  grain  predominates,  whilst  paga  always  contains 
a  large  proportion  of  red  grain.  Macan  returns  on  an 
average  eighty  cavans  in  the  crop  for  one  of  seed, 
and  will  sometimes  run  as  high  as  one  hundred  to 
one,  but  paga  seed  seldom  produces  more  than  forty 
grains.  On  the  other  hand,  more  than  one  crop  is 


332  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

rarely  harvested  from  the  lowlands,  whilst  upland 
fields  generally  give  three.  The  seed  beds  for  low- 
land rice  are  thoroughly  mashed  with  the  plough 
under  four  or  five  inches  of  water  and  thickly  sown 
broadcast.  When  the  shoots  have  reached  a  height 
of  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches  they  are  pulled  up  by 
the  roots  and  transplanted. 

The  paddy-field  is  treated  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  seed  bed,  and  the  soil  is  worked  up  with  a  har- 
row under  water  until  it  forms  a  muddy  mass.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this  result  artificial  irrigation 
must  sometimes  be  resorted  to.  The  land  is  kept 
flooded  until  inflorescence  develops ;  it  is  then  allowed 
to  dry. 

The  upland  field  is  prepared  by  several  ploughings 
and  harrowings  during  the  early  rains.  The  seed  is 
then  sown  directly  upon  it.  In  some  localities  sow- 
ing is  effected  by  dropping  three  or  four  grains  into 
each  of  a  number  of  small  holes  which  are  made  with 
a  bamboo  instrument.  About  one  picul  of  unhulled 
rice  is  needed  to  sow  a  hectare  of  land  of  either 
character. 

Lowland  rice  is  sown  in  May  at  the  commencement 
of  the  rainy  season,  and  harvested  about  four  months 
later.  It  is  cut  with  sickles,  bundled,  and  allowed 
to  lie  in  the  field  until  dry. 

The  process  of  separating  the  grain  from  the  straw 
is  carried  out  in  various  ways.  Some  small  culti- 
vators use  flails ;  others  resort  to  their  feet.  The  grain 


RICE.  333 

is  then  pounded  in  a  wooden  mortar  and  finally  sifted 
through  shallow  baskets.  There  are,  however,  a  num- 
ber of  threshing  mills  in  Luzon  which  charge  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  cents  per  cavan  for  cleaning  rice. 
The  principal  rice  producing  sections  in  the  Archi- 
pelago are  Pangasinan,  Nueva  Ecija,  Pampanga, 
Tarlac  (northern  portion),  Zambales  (southern  part), 
Bulacan,  Cavite,  La  Laguna,  Batangas,  Camarines 
Sur  (the  chief  district  of  southern  Luzon),  the 
Visayan  Islands,  Capiz  (Island  of  Panay),  and  Ne- 
gros.  Pangasinan  contains  the  best  rice  lands  in  the 
north.  The  macan  of  this  province  returns  eighty 
cavans  of  grain  for  one  of  seed;  in  the  uplands  the 
return  is  from  forty  to  sixty  grains. 

The  finest  rice  farm  in  the  Archipelago  is  at 
Imus,  famous  as  the  headquarters  of  the  insurgents 
in  Cavite  during  1896.  It  contains  eighteen  thousand 
hectares,  of  which  upwards  of  thirteen  thousand  are 
under  rice  cultivation.  One  third  of  this  area  is 
choice  land  that' yields  one  hundred  cavans  of  rice  to 
one  of  seed;  another  third  yields  seventy-five,  and 
the  remainder  fifty  to  one.  The  balance  of  the  estate 
is  upland,  which  could  be  made  to  produce  in  the 
ratio  of  perhaps  forty  to  one.  In  the  same  province 
there  are  notable  plantations  at  San  Francisco  de 
Malabon  and  at  Santa  Cruz  de  Malabon. 

In  some  provinces  the  land  is  prepared  under  con- 
tract at  the  rate  of  $1.50  per  hectare,  and  for  harvest- 
ing $3  and  one  cavan  of  seed  per  hectare  are  allowed. 


334  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Or,  the  cutting  may  be  contracted  for  at  the  rate  of 
from  25  cents  to  37^2  cents  per  thousand  bundles,  of 
which  the  former  yield  two,  and  the  latter,f  our  cliupas. 
The  cost  and  returns  of  rice  culture  vary  greatly 
with  differing  conditions.  The  Cavite  farms  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  net  about  thirty  per  cent, 
per  annum  on  the  capital  engaged.  They  are,  how- 
ever, worked  under  exceptionally  favorable  condi- 
tions. Nevertheless,  it  is  quite  probable  that  with 
ample  capital,  modern  machinery,  and  railroad  facil- 
ities, such  as  will  soon  be  available,  a  large  operation 
might  produce  as  good,  or  even  better,  results. 

CACAO   CULTIVATION   AND  ITS   POSSIBILITIES. 

Cacao  is  found  widespread  throughout  the  Archi- 
pelago but  only  in  a  few  localities  is  it  raised  at  all 
extensively.  The  intelligent  cultivation  of  the  plant  is 
a  highly  profitable  occupation  where  the  yield  is  of 
excellent  quality  and  the  demand  for  it  at  present 
considerably  in  excess  of  the  supply.  All  the  choco- 
late produced  from  the  Philippine  cacao  seed  is  con- 
sumed in  the  islands  and  falls  short  of  the  domestic 
requirements.  Should  the  industry  expand,  as  it 
ought  to,  until  there  is  a  surplus  for  exportation,  the 
product  will  find  a  ready  market  in  the  United  States 
and  elsewhere,  for  it  is  admitted  by  manufacturers  to 
be  first  class,  if  not  quite  equal  to  the  very  best. 

Many  sections  of  the  Archipelago  are  perfectly 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  plant,  and  with  im- 


CACAO  CULTIVATION.  335 

proved  methods  the  present  large  profits  and  superior 
quality  of  the  product  may  both  be  enhanced. 

The  prime  essential  to  the  successful  growth  of  the 
cacao  plant  is  a  suitable  climate;  physical  environ- 
ment is  of  next  importance,  and  character  of  soil  the 
least  consideration.  Cacao  thrives  in  the  atmosphere 
of  a  Turkish  bath,  and  it  should  be  planted  in  small 
valleys  free  from  draught  and  sheltered  from  the 
prevailing  wind  by  high  hills  or  mountains.  Planta- 
tions set  in  forest  clearings  enjoy  the  best  possible  con- 
ditions, it  being  understood,  of  course,  that  the  heavy 
forest  remains  standing  around  the  field.  The  land 
is  cleared  of  everything  but  necessary  shade  trees, 
and  worked  to  as  great  a  depth  as  possible.  Drainage 
ditches  are  dug  before  planting  takes  place.  It  is 
the  general  custom  to  set  the  fruiting  banana  for 
temporary  shelter,  but  in  districts  where  abaca  will 
grow  it  may  be  substituted  with  profit.  The  tem- 
porary shade  is  maintained  until  the  fourth  or  fifth 
year,  when  it  is  grubbed  out,  the  stalks  and  roots 
being  left  upon  the  ground,  to  which  they  furnish  a 
useful  fertilizer,  rich  in  nitrogen.  There  are  two 
varieties  of  cacao  in  general  cultivation  in  the  Archi- 
pelago— the  criollo  and  the  forastero.  The  former 
has  the  better  flavor,  is  less  bitter,  and  is  more  easily 
cured ;  qualities  which  combine  to  give  it  a  higher 
commercial  value.  On  the  other  hand,  forastero  has 
the  advantage  in  point  of  yield,  vigor,  freedom  from 
disease,  and  compatibility  to  environment.  In  gen- 


336  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

eral,  then,  the  preference  should  be  given  to  the  latter, 
but  in  certain  districts  of  Mindanao,  where  conditions 
perfectly  favorable  to  its  cultivation  prevail,  criollo 
may  be  raised  with  greater  profit. 

Planting  is  done  "at  stake,"  or  from  the  nursery. 
The  former  method,  which  consists  in  depositing  seed 
directly  in  the  field,  is  very  hazardous  on  account  of 
the  presence  of  numerous  predatory  insects  and  ver- 
min. A  careful  planter  wyill  always  resort  to  seed- 
lings, which  may  be  kept  under  close  care  and  control 
until  ready  for  transplanting.  The  seeds  are  planted 
singly  in  small  pots,  or  bamboo  tubes,  the  receptacles 
being  set  in  a  free,  light  soil.  The  shoots  are  care- 
fully' watered  and  shaded  for  from  three  to  six 
months,  when  they  will  be  ready  for  setting  out. 

The  cacao  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  from  ten  to 
twelve  feet,  and  bears  its  crop  of  heavy  pods  directly 
from  the  trunk  and  main  branches.  Its  five-inch 
fruit  depends  from  stems  none  too  strong  and  is 
easily  torn  off  by  a  high  wind.  The  wood  of  the  tree 
is  of  a  very  soft  and  spongy  character,  and  offers  only 
the  slightest  resistance  to  borers,  so  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  be  extremely  careful  to  avoid  injury  to  the 
bark.  This  makes  pruning  a  delicate  operation.  The 
most  abundant  crop  is  generally  secured  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  dry  season,  and  the  fruit  continues 
to  ripen  during  two  months.  The  pods  should  be 
gathered  by  hand,  or  with  the  aid  of  extension  cut- 
ters. Never  should  a  laborer  be  allowed  to  climb  a 


A  CACAO  PLANTATION.  337 

tree.  The  fruit  is  thrown  upon  the  ground  in  heaps 
and  opened  within  twenty-four  hours.  Two  jars  of 
water  are  provided  for  the  cleaners,  who  sort  and 
grade  the  seeds  as  they  are  removed  from  the  pulp. 
Large,  ripe,  and  unimpaired  seeds  go  into  one  jar; 
small,  imperfect  and  immature  seeds  into  the  other. 
Thus  they  are  allowed  to  stand  for  a  day,  after 
which  they  are  washed  in  fresh  water,  dried  in  the 
sun  for  two  or  three  days,  and  they  are  ready  for  the 
manufacturer.  Simple  as  the  process  is,  it  results 
in  an  excellent  quality  of  product  which  finds  a 
ready  market  at  unusually  high  prices.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  attempt  to 
improve  the  grade  by  fermentation  with  its  at- 
tendant risk  is  advisable. 

Few  crops  make  so  little  drain  upon  the  soil  as 
cacao  does.  Trees  commonly  bear  continuously  for 
twenty  years  and  more  without  the  aid  of  any  fer- 
tilizer, but  the  use  of  it  would,  no  doubt,  be  advan- 
tageous both  as  to  quantity  and  quality  of  yield. 

DETAILED  STATEMENT  OF  A  CACAO  PLANTATION. 

The  following  estimate  of  the  expenses  and  profit 
involved  in  cacao  cultivation,  carefully  compiled  by 
Mr.  W.  S.  Lyon,  of  the  Insular  Bureau  of  Agri- 
culture, might,  perhaps,  need  some  revision  to  con- 
form to  the  present  conditions  of  the  labor  market  and 
other  economic  changes  of  the  past  two  or  three  years. 

22 


333  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

It  is,  however,  substantially  correct,  and  may  be  ac- 
cepted as  a  reliable  guide  by  prospective  planters. 

The  size  of  farm,  sixteen  hectares,  is  based  upon 
the  amount  of  land  prescribed  by  Act  of  Congress  as 
the  limit  of  a  single  public  land  entry.  The  cost  of 
procuring  such  a  tract  cannot  be  determined,  but  it 
would  undoubtedly  be  low.  The  price  of  the  product 
is  calculated  at  forty-eight  cents  per  kilo,  which  is  the 
current  figure  for  the  best  grade  of  cacao  in  the  open 
market.  The  yield  per  tree  is  fixed  at  two  catties,, 
a  conservative  estimate  for  a  tree  with  little  or  no 
cultivation.  The  prices  for  unskilled  labor  are  given 
at  one-fourth  advance  over  the  wages  of  farm  hands 
in  the  Visayas,  but  probably  a  further  increase  of 
twenty-five  per  cent,  would  be  necessary  in  order  to  ar- 
rive at  the  present  cost  of  labor  in  many  localities. 
No  allowance  is  made  for  management,  on  the  as- 
sumption that  the  owner  would  supervise  the  prop- 
erty. 

EXPENSES  AND  INCOME. 

Charges  to  capital  account  are  given  for  the  sec- 
ond, third  and  fourth  years,  but  no  current  expenses 
are  given,  for  the  proposition  contemplates  sufficient 
receipts  from  side  crops  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
the  operation  until  the  cacao  trees  begin  to  bear. 


EXPENSES  AND  INCOME  OF  CACAO.  339 

ESTIMATE  OF  EXPENSES  AND  INCOME  OF  SIXTEEN 

HECTARES  OF  CACAO. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

Capital  account: 
Clearing  average  brush  and  timber  land, 

at  $15  per  hectare $340.00 

Four  carahao,  plows,  harrows,  cultivators, 

carts,   etc.    . . . 550.00 

Breaking  and  preparing  land,  at  $5  per 

hectare   80.00 

Opening  main  drainage  canals,  at  $6  per 

hectare    .'...*. 96.00 

Tool  house  and  store-room  200.00 

Purchase  and  planting  10,000  abaca  shoots, 

at  2  cents  each 200.00 

Seed  purchase,  rearing,  and  planting  12,000 

cacao  trees,  at  3  cents  each 360.00 

Contingent  and  incidental   174.00 

$2,000.00 

SECOND   YEAR. 

Interest  on  investment $200.00 

Depreciation  on  tools,  buildings,  and  ani- 
mals (20  per  cent,  of  cost)   150.00 

$350.00 

THIRD   YEAR. 

Interest  on  investment   $200.00 

Depreciation  as  above  150.00 

$350.00 

FOURTH    YEAR. 

Interest  on  investment   $200.00 

Depreciation  as  above    150.00 

Building  of  drying  house  and  sweat  boxes, 
capacity  20,000  kilos   450.00 

$800.00 


Total  capital  invested $3,500.00 


340  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

FIFTH    YEAR. 

Income  account: 

From  11,680  cacao  trees,  300  grams  cacao 

each,  3,500  kilos  at  48  cents $1,680.00 

Expense  account: 

Fixed  interest  and  depreciation  charges  on 

investment  of  $3,500 $350.00 

Taxes  1%  per  cent,  on  a  one- third  valua- 
tion basis  of  $250  per  hectare  60.00 

Cultivating,    pruning,    etc.,    at    $5.50    per 
hectare   88.00 

Fertilizing,  at  $6  per  hectare  96.00 

Harvesting,    curing,    packing,    3,500    kilos 
cacao,  at  10  cents  per  kilo 350.00 

Contingent    86.00 

$1,030.00 


Credit  balance   $650.00 

SIXTH    YEAR. 

Income  account : 

From    11,680   cacao    trees,    at    500   grams 

cacao  each,  equals  5,840  kilos  at  48  cents  $2,808.20 
Expense  account: 

Fixed  interest  and  depreciation  charges  as 

above $350.00 

Taxes  as  above  60.00 

Cultivating,  etc.,  as  above  88.00 

Fertilizing,  at  $8  per  hectare  128.00 

Harvesting,  etc.,  5,840  kilos  cacao,   at  10 

cents  per  kilo    584.00 

Contingent 93.20 

$1,303.20 


Credit  balance   . . . : -  $1,500.00 


EXPENSES  AND  INCOME  OF  CACAO.  341 

SEVENTH    YEAR. 

Income  account : 
From    11,680   cacao   trees,    at    750   grams 

cacao  each,  equals  8,7C>0  kilos,  at  48  cents  $4,204.80 

Expense  account: 

Fixed  interest  charges  as  above  $350.00 

Taxes  as  above  60.00 

Cultivating,  etc.,   as  above    88.00 

Fertilizing,  at  $10  per  hectare  160.00 

Harvest,  etc.,  of  8,760  kilos,  at  10  cents 

per  kilo    876.00 

Contingent     170.80 

$1,704.80 


Credit  balance   $2,500.00 


EIGHTH   YEAR. 

Income  account: 

From  11,680  trees,  at  1  kilo  each,  at  48 

cents    $5,606.00 

Expense  account: 

Fixed  interest  charges  as  above $350.00 

Taxes  as  above  60.00 

Cultivation,  etc.,  as  above 88.00 

Fertilizing,  at  $12.50  per  hectare   200.00 

Harvest,  etc.,  11,680  kilos,  at  10  cents  per 

kilo    1,168.00 

Contingent    240.00 

$2,106.00 


Credit  balance  $3,500.00 

NINTH   YEAR. 

Income  account : 

From  11,680  trees,  at  2  catties  (1.25  kilo), 
equals  14,600  kilos  each,  at  48  cents  . . .  $7,008.00 


342  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Expense  account : 
Fixed  interest  and  depreciation  charges  as 

above    $350.00 

Taxes,  at  1^>  per  cent,  on  a  one-third  valu- 

tion  of  $500  per  hectare 120.00 

Cultivation,  etc.,  as  above 88.00 

Fertilizing,  at  $15  per  hectare 240.00 

Harvesting,  etc.,  14,600  kilos,  at  10  cents 

per  kilo    1,4GO.OO 

Contingent    250.00 

$2,508.00 


Credit  balance $4,500.00 

In  the  tenth  year  there  should  be  no  increase  in 
taxes,  or  fertilizers,  and  a  slight  increase  in  yield, 
sufficient  to  bring  the  net  profits  of  the  estate  to  the 
approximate  amount  of  $5,000.  This  would  equal 
a  dividend  of  rather  more  than  $312  per  hectare,  or 
about  $126  per  acre. 

These  tables  further  show  original  capitalization 
account  cost  of  nearly  $90  per  acre,  and  from  the 
ninth  year  annual  operating  expenses  of  somewhat 
more  than  $60  per  acre.  It  should  be  stated,  how- 
ever, that  the  operating  expenses  are  based  upon  a 
systematic  and  scientific  management  of  the  estate, 
while  the  returns,  or  income,  are  based  upon  the 
revenue  from  trees  that  are  at  the  disadvantage  of 
being  without  any  culture  whatever,  and  whilst  it  is 
improbable  that  either  the  original  cost  per  acre, 
or  the  cost  of  operation,  can  be  materially  reduced, 
it  is  tolerably  certain  that  the  yield  may  be  increased 


EXPENSES  AND  INCOME  OF  CACAO.  343 

considerably  beyond  two  catties  per  tree.  In  the 
Cameroons,  and  in  French  Congo,  trees  are  stated  on 
indisputable  authority  to  yield  in  excess  of  four 
pounds,  or  over  three  catties.  In  the  Carolines  the 
trees  are  said  to  give  five  and  six  pounds,  and  it  is 
claimed  that  single  plants  in  Mindanao  have  borne  as 
much  as  ten  pounds  of  seed. 

As  Mr.  Lyon  remarks,  "the  difference  between  good 
returns  and  enormous  profits  arising  from  cacao  grow- 
ing in  the  Philippines  will  be  determined  by  the 
amount  of  knowledge,  experience,  and  energy  that 
the  planter  is  capable  of  bringing  to  bear  upon  the 
culture  in  question." 

Whilst  the  foregoing  estimate  has  taken  no  account 
of  manager's  salary,  it  would  be  indispensable  to  suc- 
cess that  an  individual  or  corporation  investing  money 
in  the  industry  without  knowledge  of  its  details  should 
secure  the  most  experienced  management  possible 
without  sparing  expense.  The  cultivation  of  cacao  is 
a  very  harzardous  enterprise,  and  although  recent  in- 
vestigations have  revealed  much  that  will  facilitate 
the  culture  in  the  future  and  reduce  the  dangers,  it 
would  be  no  more  than  prudent  to  calculate  upon, 
say,  one  bad  year  in  five,  or,  in  other  wrords,  to  dis- 
count the  calculated  profits  twenty  per  cent. 

The  enemies  of  cacao  are  numerous,  and  include 
worms,  bugs,  monkeys,  and  parrots.  Drought  may 
destroy  young  plants,  or  at  least  prevent  a  crop, 
and  a  hurricane,  when  the  trees  are  laden,  will  strip 


344  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

them  of  fruit.  For  these  reasons  some  persons  rec- 
ommend cacao  only  as  a  side  crop  and  not  as  a 
dependence,  and  it  would  be  a  sheer  gamble  for  any 
one  to  put  all  his  capital  into  a  cacao  plantation.  The 
prospective  returns,  however,  are  so  extremely  large 
in  this  industry  and  the  eventual  profits  so  certain, 
that  it  offers  a  splendid  investment  for  capital  sup- 
ported by, an  ample  reserve.  For  instance,  $5,000 
put  into  cacao,  with  another  $5,000  to  reinforce  it  if 
necessary,  would  insure  the  success  of  the  venture. 
If  $750,  or  $1,500  local  currency,  were  paid  to  a  good 
manager  there  would  be  a  small  deficit  during  the 
first  three  or  four  years  perhaps,  although  the  pres- 
ence of  such  a  man  might  be  expected  to  enhance  the 
receipts  from  the  shade  abaca;  but  in  any  case  such 
an  outlay  would  be  in  the  nature  of  ultimate  economy. 

MINOR  PRODUCTS,   INDIGO,   MAIZE,  ZACATE,    TEOSINTE. 

Indigo  was  at  one  time  exported  in  considerable 
quantities  (in  1892  to  the  value  of  over  $150,000) 
from  the  Ilocos  provinces  and  is  still  produced  in  that 
section,  but  now  only  for  the  home  consumption.  The 
loss  of  the  market  for  indigo  is  attributed  to  the 
extended  use  of  dyes  derived  from  coal  tar,  that  is 
to  say  aniline  dyes,  and  to  the  gross  adulterations  to 
which  the  Philippine  product  was  subjected  by  the 
Chinese  jobbers,  who,  by-the-way,  have  created  a 
bad  name  for  Philippine  gutta  percha  in  the  same 
manner.  Twenty-five  years  ago  the  product  of  Ilocos 


MINOR  PRODUCTS  345 

Sur  fetched  as  much  as  120  pesos  per  quintal  in  the 
open  market;  to-day  30  pesos  is  a  fair  price  for  it. 
This  great  falling  off  is  due  mainly  to  the  manipula- 
tion referred  to  above.  There  is  still  an  extensive 
market  for  vegetable  indigo,  and  it  is  believed  that 
with  proper  cultivation  and  honest  treatment  the  Phil- 
ippine product  would  command  very  much  higher 
figures.  Indigo  can  be  subjected  to  a  high  grade  of 
cultivation  at  a  cost  of  $40  to  $50  per  hectare  of  land 
which,  under  such  conditions,  should  yield  at  least 
four  quintals  of  good  quality  dye  stuff.  This  at,  say 
$25  per  quintal,  would  yield  a  fair  profit. 

Indian  corn  is  quite  generally  cultivated  through 
the  Archipelago,  and  in  a  few  districts  is  the  staple 
food  of  the  natives,  but  they  invariably  prefer  rice 
when  they  can  get  it.  Maize  is  chiefly  used  as  a  cat- 
tle food,  and  for  this  purpose  the  entire  plant — stalk, 
leaves  and  grain — is  utilized.  In  good  land  maize 
seed  will  yield  t\vo-hundred  fold  and  give  three  crops 
in  a  year. 

Zacate,  which  is  forage  grass  of  several  varieties, 
is  profitably  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  likely  markets. 
Farmers  are  enabled  to  gather  five,  and  even  six, 
crops  in  the  year,  for  which,  especially  in  Manila, 
good  prices  are  obtained.  The  grass  is  not  cured,  but 
made  up  into  small  bundles  and  sold  for  consumption 
in  the  green  state. 

Teosinte  is  a  very  valuable  annual  grass  which  has 
recently  been  introduced  to  the  Philippines,  where  its 


346  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

adaptability  has  been  satisfactorily  demonstrated.  It 
grows  as  high  as  twelve  feet  and  from  sixty  to  seventy 
stems  are  produced  from  a  single  seed.  In  the  south- 
ern portion  of  the  United  States  it  has  been  found 
to  yield  crops  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  tons  per  acre. 

BAMBOO  AND  NIPA  PALM. 

Several  species  of  bamboo  grow  luxuriantly  through- 
out the  Archipelago.  This  plant  is  an  important  fac- 
tor in  the  domestic  economy  of  all  Oriental  people. 
The  Filipinos  put  it  to  many  useful  purposes,  the 
principal  being  the  construction  of  houses,  the  frame- 
works of  which  are  as  a  rule  made  of  this  material. 
The  entire  edifice  is  strongly  constructed  of  vegetable 
products  and  without  the  employment  of  a  nail.  The 
bamboos  are  firmly  bound  together  with  bejuco,  or 
rattan,  and  the  roof  is  formed  of  a  cogon  or  nipa 
thatch.  The  floors  are  usually  of  bamboo  and  the 
same  material  is  used  for  doors,  window,  shutters, 
and  the  rest. 

Bamboo  is  converted  to  the  greatest  number  and 
variety  of  purposes;  indeed,  there  appears  to  be  no 
species  of  domestic  utility  or  industrial  occupation,  in 
which  it  does  not  play  an  important  part. 

The  variety  called  Cauayang  totoo  sometimes  at- 
tains a  height  of  more  that  twelve  meters  and  a 
diameter  of  more  than  twenty  centimeters. 

Nipa,  or  sasa,  is  a  very  useful  palm  of  fern-like  ap- 
pearance, that  grows  in  marshy  localities.  It  reaches 


PRIMITIVE  METHODS  OF  AGRICULTURE.        347 

a  height  of  four  meters  and  throws  off  clusters  of  long 
leaves  which  are  used,  wherever  they  are  obtainable, 
for  the  roofs  of  buildings.  From  the  sap,  nipa  wine, 
or  vino,  is  distilled,  and  large  quantities  of  it  are  con- 
sumed by  the  natives  as  a  beverage.  Extensive  groves 
of  nipa  are  cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
liquor,  for  which  there  is  an  unlimited  demand. 

THE     PRIMITIVE     METHODS     OF     PHILIPPINE 
AGRICULTURE. 

In  general,  the  methods  of  agriculture  followed  in 
the  Philippine  Islands  are  antiquated,  and  oftetn 
haphazard.  The  implements  used  are  of  the  rudest 
description,  and  no  more  than  a  moderate  degree  of 
energy  and  intelligence  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
work.  Perhaps  the  Filipino  obtains  better  compara- 
tive results  from  his  paddy-field  than  from  any  other 
branch  of  agricultural  industry,  but  even  in  that,  his 
favorite  and  oldest  occupation,  he  falls  far  short  of  the 
maximum  possibilities.  It  may  be  said  of  all  the 
agricultural  pursuits  of  the  islands  that  with  modern 
methods  and  appliances  much  greater  areas  could  be 
cultivated  with  improvement  in  the  grade  of  crops 
at  no  more  expenditure  of  labor  than  is  now  applied  to 
restricted  operations. 

The  ancient  wooden  plough  that  was  introduced 
from  China  centuries  ago  is  still  in  general,  in  fact 
almost  universal,  use.  It  is  drawn  by  a  leisurely 
carabao,  and  does  little  more  than  scratch  the  ground. 


348  THE  PHILIPPINES 

A  wooden  harrow,  also  attached  to  the  inevitable 
carabao,  may  supplement  the  superficial  action  of 
the  plough.  The  subsequent  cultivation  of  the  grow- 
ing crop  is  very  meagre  and  often  hardly  enough  to 
insure  a  harvest.  Fortunately  IsTature  in  these  islands 
needs  little  wooing  to  bestow  her  favors  bounteously. 

Since  tho  American  occupation,  attempts  have  been 
made  to  induce  the  native  farmers  to  adopt  the  use 
of  modern  implements  and  machinery,  but  up  to  the 
present  the  result  has  not  been  encouraging.  Of 
course  the  difficulty  lies  in  breaking  away  from  old- 
established  custom  and  is  a  perfectly  natural  one. 
Most  modern  field  machinery  is  made  to  be  drawn 
by  horses.  The  native  cultivator  is  apt  to  think  that 
anything  which  is  beyond  the  capacity  of  his  ponder- 
ous carabao  must  need  steam  for  a  motive  power. 
The  pony — there  are  no  horses — of  the  Archipelago 
is  a  husky  little  beast  that  should  make  an  excellent 
draft  animal,  and,  if  the  demand  for  it  in  that 
capacity  arose,  no  doubt  it  would  easily  be  met.  A 
place  must  always  be  found  for  the  carabao  in  the 
agricultural  economy  of  an  Oriental  country,  but  it 
would  be  well  if  the  Filipino  farmer  could  be  pur- 
suaded  that  the  useful  quadruped  is  not  all  in  all. 

The  Guia  Oficial  de  Filipinos  gives  a  true  and 
concise  description  of  this  remarkable  animal.  "The 
carabao,  or  water  buffalo,  is  the  most  notable  quad- 
ruped found  by  the  Spaniards  when  they  came  to 
occupy  these  islands.  There  are  few  animals  which 


THE  FILIPINO  AS  A  LABORER.  349 

are  as  ugly,  and  there  are  also  few  which  are  more 
useful  in  agricultural  labors,  and  which  can  better 
resist  the  enervating  climate  of  the  Philippines.  Its 
color  is  black  or  brown,  the  hair  is  very  scarce,  the 
horns  large,  arched,  and  rough,  and  the  head  is  com- 
paratively small.  Its  strength  is  enormous.  It  easily 
swims  the  wildest  rivers  and  can  haul  very  heavy 
loads,  although  its  progress  is  slow  and  its  movements 
awkward.  It  likes  humidity  and  to  roll  in  the  mud. 
The  hide  and  horns  of  the  carabao  are  of  great  com- 
mercial value.  The  carabao  begins  to  work  after  it  is 
five  or  six  years  old.  It  lives  to  about  thirty  years." 

THE  FILIPINO   CONSIDERED  AS  A  LABORER. 

In  considering  the  Filipino  as  an  agriculturist  we 
are  prone  to  judge  him  by  American  standards  which 
is  altogether  unfair.  As  a  matter  of  fact  he  does 
more  work  than  a  casual  observer  is  likely  to  sus- 
pect. Like  the  ryot  of  India,  the.  Filipino  is  in  his 
field  at  early  dawn  and  puts  in  three  or  four  hours 
before  the  heat  becomes  intense.  When  the  shadows 
begin  to  lengthen  with  the  decline  of  day  he  returns 
to  his  crops  and  toils  for  three  or  four  other  hours. 
When  one  considers  the  heat  and  humidity  of  the 
Philippine  climate  it  must  be  admitted  that  six  or 
eight  hours  a  day  is  a  considerable  tax  on  a  rice-fed 
man  of  indifferent  physique.  At  any  rate,  it  com- 
pares creditably  with  the  practice  of  the  peasantry  of 
India  and  China,  who  are  not  subject  to  a  similarly 


350  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

enervating  climate.  In  fact,  there  would  not  be  room 
to  cavil  at  the  daily  effort  of  the  Filipino  if  it  were 
sustained  for  six  days  a  week  throughout  the  year,  but, 
as  in  most  Roman  Catholic  countries,  fiestas  and  holy 
days  heavily  discount  the  \vork  days  of  a  year. 

The  impression  that  the  Filipino  has  no  backbone 
should  have  been  removed  by  the  agricultural  achieve- 
ments of  recent  years  in  the  face  of  a  succession  of 
heart-breaking  calamities.  The  Insular  Government 
did  all  that  was  possible  to  mitigate  conditions,  but 
the  brunt  of  the  struggle  had  necessarily  to  be  borne 
by  the  peasant.  When  one  considers  that  in  1902 
nearly  half  the  carabao,  upon  which  the  farmers  de- 
pend, died,  it  is  really  difficult  to  understand  how  the 
crops  of  the  succeeding  year  were  produced.  It  is 
quite  probable  that  under  similar  circumstances  the 
Hindu  ryot  would  have  lain  down  in  despair  and  sur- 
rendered his  country  to  famine  for  a  succession  of 
years. 

The  wholesale  condemnation  of  the  Filipino  day 
laborer  is  equally  unjust.  Under  the  superintendence 
of  those  who  understand  him  he  renders  good  service, 
and  American  contractors  and  Government  officials 
who  have  had  extensive  opportunities  for  observation, 
express  themselves  as  well  satisfied  with  the  native 
laborer.  The  average  Filipino  earns  his  wage,  but 
it  is  too  much  to  expect  him  to  rival  the  American 
day  laborer. 

The  sistima  inquilino,  in  its  several  forms  which 


FIELD  FOR  AMERICANS  IN  THE  ISLANDS.       351 

are  variously  termed  "tenant,"  "share,"  or  "bene- 
ficiary" system,  may  be  an  outgrowth  of  the  early 
system  of  encomiendas.  It  prevails  in  one  form 
or  another  in  almost  all  the  agricultural  indus- 
tries, and  the  fact  of  its  long  continuance  under  the 
Spaniards,  who  knew  the  natives  perfectly,  would 
indicate  that  it  is  best  adapted  to  the  labor  conditions 
of  the  Archipelago.  It  has  serious  drawbacks  which, 
however,  it  may  be  possible  to  minimize  without  radi- 
cal change.  As  a  question  of  public  policy  the 
sistima  inquilino,  which  encourages  the  attachment 
of  the  peasant  to  the  soil,  is  more  desirable  than  agri- 
cultural day  labor,  which  tends  to  create  a  shifting 
population. 

THE    FIELD    FOR   AMERICANS    IN    THE    ISLANDS. 

There  has  been  no  intention  in  the  foregoing  ac- 
count of  Philippine  agricultural  opportunities  to  create 
the  impression  that  the  country  is  an  El  Dorado,  offer- 
ing wealth  for  the  asking  without  risk  or  effort.  It 
is  true,  however,  that  few  portions  of  the  world  have 
such  extensive  undeveloped  resources  as  the  Philip- 
pine Archipelago,  and  perhaps  none  affords  a  more 
promising  field  for  the  investment  of  capital  in  mod- 
erate sums.  In  the  countries  of  South  America  and 
Asia  a  large  outlay  is  generally  necessary  to  the  suc- 
cess of  industrial  operations,  and  the  question  is  often 
complicated  by  uncertain  political  conditions  and  un- 
stable laws.  In  the  Philippines  there  are  innumer- 


352  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

able  channels  in  which  ten  or  twenty  thousand  dol- 
lars may  be  safely  invested  with  large  profits.  Most 
of  the  openings  in  question  demand  skilled  direction. 
This  may  be  readily  hired,  or  the  needful  experience 
may  be  acquired  in  the  majority  of  cases  without  great 
difficulty  by  the  investor  during  a  preliminary  resi- 
dence. There  are  in  the  islands  many  planters  whose 
properties  could  be  doubled  and  trebled  in  value 
by  the  introduction  of  modern  methods  and  machin- 
ery, and  amongst  these,  profitable  investments  on  a 
partnership  basis  should  not  be  difficult  to  find. 

It  cannot  be  too  emphatically  stated  that  there 
is  no  place  in  the  Philippines  for  the  man  without 
capital,  unless  he  has  some  useful  trade  for  the  exer- 
cise of  which  there  is  an  unquestionable  scope.  In 
either  case  the  prospective  colonist  should  have  a 
definite  idea  as  to  the  future  direction  of  his  efforts 
before  leaving  America.  In  this  connection  it  may 
be  well  to  state  that  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  has  published  a  mass  of  useful 
information  on  the  subject  which  is  available  to  the 
public.  Furthermore,  Colonel  Edwards  and  his  sub- 
ordinates are  ever  ready  to  afford  every  assistance 
possible  to  enquirers. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  islands  afford  ex- 
cellent fields  for  corporate  enterprise  upon  a  large 
scale.  There  are  several  branches  of  mechanical, 
mining,  and  agricultural  industry  that  are  well  worth 
investigation  by  some  of  our  large  concerns.  The 


FIELD  FOR  AMERICANS  IN  THE  ISLANDS.       353 

Insular  Government  is  constantly  engaged  in  exten- 
sive public  works  which  involve  profitable  contracts. 
American  firms  should  not  be  deterred  by  the  presence 
of  established  foreign  houses  and  their  representa- 
tives. The  Philippines  are  in  a  process  of  trans- 
formation. New  conditions  and  fresh  opportunities 
are  constantly  arising.  Peace  and  order  prevail,  and 
a  rapid  recovery  from  the  adverse  circumstances  of 
recent  years  may  be  expected. 

There  is  every  indication  that  the  recent  visit  of 
Secretary  Taf  t  and  the  Congressmen  who  accompanied 
him  to  the  islands,  will  bear  immediate  fruit  in  legis- 
lation designed  to  expedite  agricultural  and  mineral 
development.  Duties  will  be  removed  from  Philip- 
pine imports  to  the  United  States.  The  restrictions 
that  have  militated  against  the  investment  of  capital 
by  individuals  and  corporations  will  be  abated.  What 
President  Roosevelt  in  a  recent  public  speech  char- 
acterized as  "the  unfortunate  measures  which  have 
seriously,  in  some  respects  vitally,  hampered  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Philippine  Islands"  will  undoubt- 
edly be  repealed.  With  the  expected  action  of  Con- 
gress and  the  inception  of  the  railroad  system  the 
islands  should  enter,  in  1906,  upon  an  era  of  great 
prosperity. 

23 


PUBLIC  LANDS,  TIMBER, 
MINERALS,  ETC. 


IX. 

PUBLIC  LANDS,  TIMBER,  MINERALS,  ETC. 

Area  Under  Cultivation — Forest  Lands  of  the  Archipelago — 
Some  Varieties  of  Commercial  Timber — Official  and  Pri- 
vate Tests  of  Philippine  Timber — Scientific  Survey  by 
the  Insular  Forestry  Bureau — Wasteful  Methods  of 
Native  Lumbering — Cost  of  Lumber  Operation  Under  the 
Present  System — Possibilities  of  the  Lumber  Industry — 
Forestry  Regulations — Gutta  Percha — The  Future  of  the 
Gutta  Percha  Trade — Rubber  May  be  a  Latent  Source  of 
Wealth — Cattle-Raising  an  Inviting  Field  for  Capital- 
Luzon  Has  the  Finest  Grass  Country  in  the  World — 
Ready  Markets  for  Philippine  Cattle — Mineral  Wealth- 
Gold  has  Been  Mined  for  Centuries — Iron  and  Coal  Exist 
in  Abundance. 

Pending  the  completion  of  the  Government  survey 
of  the  Archipelago,  figures  applying  to  the  larger  areas 
must  necessarily  be  based  upon  estimates,  which, 
however,  have  generally  been  made  carefully  and 
doubtless  are  approximately  correct.  The  Spaniards 
had  no  exact  knowledge  of  the  area  of  the  islands, 
nor  even  of  their  number.  The  Schurman  Commis- 
sion in  an  endeavor  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the 
public  domain  had  recourse  to  Spanish  documents 
and  "general  information  gathered  from  various 
sources,  particularly  from  natives  acquainted  with 
the  provinces."  The  conclusion  arrived  at  was  that 
the  public  lands  equaled  half  the  area  of  the  Archi- 
pelago. 

(357) 


358  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Taft  Commission,  after  more  extensive  re- 
search, reported  (1900)  as  follows :  "The  total  amount 
of  land  in  the  Philippine  Islands  is  approximately 
29,694,500  hectares,  or  73,345,415  acres.  Of  this 
amount  it  is  estimated  that  about  2,000,000  hectares, 
or  about  4,940,000  acres,  are  owned  by  individuals, 
leaving  in  public  lands  27,694,500  hectares,  or  68,- 
405,415  acres.  The  land  has  not  been  surveyed,  and 
this  is  mere  estimate.  Of  the  public  lands  there  is 
about  twice  or  three  times  as  much  forest  land  as 
there  is  waste  land.77 

The  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Lands  in  his 
report  (1903)  states:  "Assuming  the  correctness  of 
my  estimates  of  73,000,000  acres  for  the  total  area 
of  the  islands,  that  would  leave  61,000,000  acres  of 
land  belonging  to  the  public  domain. 

"The  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Lands  estimates 
the  forest  lands  on  the  public  domain  at  about  40,000,- 
000  acres.  This  would  leave  an  area  of  21,000,000 
acres  of  land  not  forested,  the  most  of  which  is  agri- 
cultural in  character  and  which  will  be  subject  to 
disposal  under  the  law  permitting  leasing,  selling  and 
homesteading." 

The  latest  estimates  are  those  of  the  Census,  cal- 
culated by  Mr.  George  E.  Putnam,  of  the  United 
States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.  These  give  the 
total  area  at  73,615,374,  and  the  public  domain  at 
66,628,118. 


AREA  UNDER  CULTIVATION.  359 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  Archipelago  only  about 
5,000,000  acres,  or  9.5  per  cent.,  of  the  whole  is  arable 
land,  distributed  very  irregularly  through  the  prov- 
inces. La  Laguna  has  the  largest  proportion  with 
53.1  per  cent. ;  Pampanga  and  Sorsogon  each  have  in 
excess  of  45  per  cent;  Ilocos  Sur,  Batangas,  Iloilo, 
Bulacan,  La  Union,  Cebu,  Cavite,  Tarlac,  Albay, 
Capiz  and  Negros  Occidental  follow  in  the  order 
named  with  agricultural  lands  aggregating  from  21 
to  38  per  cent,  of  their  total  extent.  In  no  other 
province  is  the  proportion  as  great  as  20  per  cent.,  and 
in  several,  including  Lepanto-Bontoc  and  Benguet  of 
Luzon,  it  is  less  than  1  per  cent. 

Of  the  total  area  of  agricultural  land  45.9  is  under 
cultivation.  In  the  matter  of  ratio  of  cultivated  to 
total  farm  land  the  provinces  and  comandancias  do 
not  preserve  the  above  order  by  any  means.  Ilocos 
Sur  is  first  with  84.2  per  cent,  of  its  available  soil  in 
tilth.  Jolo,  which  in  the  former  classification  is  last 
of  forty-eight  territorial  divisions  with  less  than  one- 
tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of  its  land  arable,  is  second  in 
the  percentage  of  it  under  cultivation ;  Antique,  Mas- 
bate,  Albay,  Ilocos  Norte,  La  Union,  Pangasinan, 
Rizal,  Bulacan,  Zarnboanga,  Manila  City,  Nueva  Viz- 
caya,  Sorsogon  and  Pampanga  follow,  all  with  more 
than  60  per  cent. 

All  Oriental  people  are  gregarious  as  a  result  of 
temperament  and  the  exigencies  of  life  in  the  East. 
In  the  Philippines  this  tendency  to  congregate  has 


360  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

been  encouraged  from  the  earliest  times  by  the  need 
of  mutual  protection  against  such  common  enemies 
as  the  aborigines,  and  other  wild  tribes,  the  Moro 
pirates,  and  ladrones.  Consequently  we  find  the  in- 
habitants everywhere  settled  in  small  communities 
with  no  inclination  to  extend  beyond  the  limits  of 
actual  necessity.  Generally  the  holdings  are  very 
small.  Nearly  one-half  of  them  are  less  than  one 
hectare  in  size,  whilst  twenty  per  cent,  are  less  than 
one  acre.  One  of  these  little  patches  which  would 
hardly  support  a  cow  in  the  United  States  will  in  the 
Philippines,  with  its  prolific  soil,  contribute  the  main 
subsistence  of  a  family.  They  will  live  upon  it, 
and  from  it  derive  three  or  four  different  crops  in 
the  course  of  the  year. 

The  average  size  of  all  farms  in  the  Archipelago, 
including  the  small  holdings  referred  to  above,  is  only 
8.57  acres,  whilst  in  the  United  States  it  is  accord- 
ing to  the  last  census  146.6,  a  ratio  of  seventeen  to 
one. 

There  are  upwards  of  800,000  persons  engaged 
more  or  less  extensively  in  agriculture  in  the  islands. 
Of  this  number  99.8  are  full-blooded  Filipinos  of 
the  Christian  tribes.  Of  the  remainder  778  are 
"whites,"  that  is,  Americans  and  Europeans;  308 
are  half-castes  of  Spanish  or  Chinese  origin,  and 
959  are  pure  Chinese.  By  far  the  largest  proportion 
of  farmers  own  the  land  they  cultivate ;  some  pay  rent 
in  cash  and  others  in  kind  or  with  labor.  There 


FOREST  LANDS  OF  THE  ARCHIPELAGO.        361 

has  always  been  a  great  deal  of  uncertainty  about 
titles  in  the  Philippines,  but  the  difficulties  on  this 
score  have  been  comparatively  few  owing  to  the  great 
amount  of  surplus  land.  In  1894  the  Spanish  Min- 
ister for  the  Colonies  reported  to  the  Queen  of  Spain 
that  there  were  about  200,000  squatters  on  the  pub- 
lic lands  subject  to  eviction  by  the  State,  but  it  is 
believed  by  officials  of  the  Insular  Government  that 
at  present  there  are  at  least  double  that  number. 

FOREST  LANDS  OF  THE  ARCHIPELAGO. 

Captain  George  P.  Ahern,  U.  S.  A.,  reported 
(1902)  that  "in  the  total  of  forty  odd  million  acres 
of  woodland  we  find  at  the  very  least  twenty  million 
acres  of  virgin  forest.  We  find  virgin  forests  in  the 
provinces  of  Cagayan,  Isabela,  Nueva  Vizcaya,  and 
in  that  part  of  Tayabas  formerly  known  as  Principe 
and  Infanta ;  in  fact,  the  entire  coast  of  Luzon  south 
of  Antimonan  is  a  virgin  forest.  The  above-men- 
tioned forests  in  Luzon  will  aggregate  an  area  of  at 
least  3,000,000  acres.  The  foregoing  is  a  conserva- 
tive estimate,  and  any  change  made  later  will  doubt- 
less be  to  increase  the  estimate  instead  of  reducing  it. 
There  is  much  merchantable  timber  left  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Tayabas,  Camarines,  parts  of  Bulacan  and 
Bat  a  an. 

"The  islands  of  Mindoro  and  Paragua,  each  con- 
taining an  area  of  more  than  2,000,000  acres,  are 
covered  with  a  dense  stand  of  virgin  timber. 


362  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

"Mindanao,  with  an  area  of  23,000,000  acres,  con- 
tains more  than  10,000,000  acres  of  virgin  forest. 
Samar  and  Leyte — both  large  islands — are  heavily 
timbered."  In  these  areas  average  stands  are  found 
to  run  to  seven  thousand  cubic  feet  per  acre  in  trees 
with  a  diameter  of  over  twenty  inches,  and  some 
acres  reach  ten  thousand  cubic  feet.  It  is  character- 
istic of  the  Philippine  forest  that  the  species  grow 
scatteringly ;  few  pure  stands  of  a  single  species  are 
found  anywhere. 

Many  of  the  varieties  of  native  timber  are  of  the 
highest  value  and  are  in  great  demand,  whilst  among 
the  many  other  kinds  which  are  little  known  some 
may  discover  unsuspected  utilities  upon  investigation 
and  test. 

SOME  VARIETIES  OF  COMMERCIAL  TIMBER. 

Tindalo,  a  dark  red  wood,  is  found  in  many  of  the 
islands.  It  is  suitable  to  all  kinds  of  construction, 
and  on  account  of  its  durability  and  susceptibility  to 
a  high  polish  is  widely  used  in  the  East  for  fine 
cabinet  work. 

Ipil  is  abundant  in  the  Archipelago.  With  age 
it  assumes  a  purple-black  color  resembling  ebony.  It 
is  practically  impervious  to  decay,  pieces  which  have 
been  in  use  a  century  showing  no  signs  of  deteriora- 
tion. It  has  a  reputation  for  durability  in  the 
ground  and  where  it  is  in  contact  with  cement  and 
mortar  and  is  well  adapted  to  use  for  railway  sleepers. 
There  is  a  large  demand  for  it  in  China. 


COMMERCIAL  TIMBER.  363 

Narra  is  called  "the  mahogany  of  the  Philippines." 
It  seasons  well  and  admits  of  a  high  degree  of  polish. 
It  is  used  in  cabinet  work,  being  the  material  from 
which  nearly  all  the  furniture  of  Manila  is  made,  but 
is  a  first  class  wood  for  general  purposes.  It  is  classed 
in  the  London  market  with  Padouk  or  Burmese  rose- 
wood, and  is  similar  timber  to  the  redwood  of  the 
Andaman  Islands.  Being  impervious  to  the  attacks 
of  white  ants,  it  is  especially  valuable  in  the  East. 
There  is  a  white  species  of  narra  which  has  all  the 
qualities  of  the  red  variety. 

Molave  is  found  in  most  of  the  islands.  The  wood 
is  white.  It  has  many  excellent  qualities.  The  tree 
produces  timber  from  11  to  22  feet  long  and  from  12 
to  24  inches  square.  It  resists  sea-worm,  white  ants 
and  other  borers  and  is  therefore  valuable  for  many 
kinds  of  works  where  an  extra  durable  material  is 
required.  It  can  not  be  surpassed  for  railroad  sleep- 
ers, being  practically  everlasting.  This  wood  has 
been  identified  with  what,  as  "New.  Zealand  teak," 
has  long  been  known  commercially  and  highly  prized 
for  its  endurance  under  water. 

Apitong  is  a  greyish  wood  which  grows  abundantly 
in  various  parts  of  the  Archipelago.  Large  quantities 
of  the  timber  have  been  shipped  to  China,  where  it 
is  in  constant  demand  for  the  framework  of  houses 
and  for  ship's  planking. 

Yacal  is  found  in  Luzon,  Mindoro,  and  Panay.  It 
grows  to  a  height  of  from  12  to  20  meters.  The  wood 


364  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

is  used  in  the  construction  of  buildings  and  in  cabinet 
work.  It  is  of  a  darkish  yellow  color,  has  a  fine  and 
solid  texture,  breaks  with  long  splinters,  and  is  proof 
against  the  onslaughts  of  white  ants. 

Guijo  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  Archi- 
pelago. It  is  a  light  red  wood  with  undulating  fiber, 
strong  and  flexible  and  with  well-defined  pores.  It 
is  used  in  ordinary  and  in  naval  construction,  and 
largely  for  carriage  wheels  and  shafts  in  Manila. 
In  Hongkong  it  is  the  material  for  wharves,  for  decks, 
for  flooring,  and  for  other  purposes  where  a  tough 
and  elastic  wood  is  required. 

Lauan  is  found  all  over  the  islands.  It  is  a  reddish 
white  wood  of  loose  and  filaceous  texture  with  dis- 
tinctly marked  pores.  It  is  extensively  used  in  naval 
construction,  and  the  natives  often  employ  it  as  a 
covering  or  sheathing  for  hardwood  floors.  It  can 
be  turned  to  the  same  general  uses  as  our  pine,  poplar, 
and  other  soft  woods,  and  has  the  advantage  over  them 
of  resisting  white  ants.  The  foregoing  are  only  a 
few  of  many  woods  of  commercial  importance  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  vast  forests  of  the  Philippines. 

OFFICIAL   AND   PRIVATE    TESTS    OF    PHILIPPINE 
TIMBER. 

Captain  Ahern  says,  aseveral  hundred  varieties 
of  native  woods  are  received  in  the  Manila  market 
during  the  year.  Spanish  engineers  tested  and  de- 
scribed only  some  seventy  varieties,  so  that  we  have 


TESTS  OF  PHILIPPINE  TIMBER.  365 

many  species  in  the  market  to-day  that  are  not  popular 
owing  to  the  lack  of  reliable  information  concerning 
their  strength,  durability  and  suitability  for  construc- 
tion purposes.  Where  strength  and  durability  are 
especially  desired  there  are  no  finer  construction 
woods  in  the  world  to-day  than  molave,  ipil,  and 
yacal." 

Two  of  the  bridges  over  the  Pasig  were  laid  with 
molave  blocks  ten  years  ago,  and  although  it  has  been 
subjected  to  the  heaviest  traffic  of  the  city,  the  pave- 
ment is  practically  as  sound  as  ever. 

The  Pullman  Palace  Car  Company  imported  forty- 
eight  logs  of  various  Philippine  hardwoods  by  way 
of  experiment,  and  their  superintendent  declared  that 
they  were  the  best  woods  that  ever  entered  their 
works,  but  the  cost,  due  to  heavy  freight  rates  and 
crude  methods  of  lumbering,  prohibited  their  use  at 
present.  However,  the  islands  have  no  need  to  look 
to  the  United  States  for  a  market;  the  demand  at 
home  and  in  the  Orient  for  Philippine  lumber  is  cer- 
tain to  exceed  the  supply  for  years  to  come. 

Several  varieties  of  ebony  for  which  there  is  a  con- 
stant demand  in  Europe  and  America  are  found  in 
the  Archipelago.  A  lumberman  who  has  been  in  the 
Philippines  for  twenty-five  years  gave  the  following 
testimony  before  the  Peace  Commission  in  1899 : 
"They  have  in  the  Philippines  a  wood  that  is  better 
than  ebony;  it  is  called  alintatao.  It  is  best  fitted 
for  furniture,  but  may  be  used  for  anything  you  have 


366  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

a  mind  to  turn  it  to.  It  is  a  lasting  wood.  .  .  . 
I  would  recommend  alintatao  and  narra  as  the  finest 
woods  for  furniture."  From  careful  tests  made  by 
the  Insular  Forestry  Bureau  and  comparison  with  re- 
sults obtained  by  the  United  States  Agricultural  De- 
partment, the  following  table  has  been  compiled. 
Some  of  the  Philippine  group  show  remarkable 
strength.  Apulag-amo  subjected  to  the  "compression 
endwise"  strain  exhibited  a  resistance  of  15,110 
pounds  per  square  inch;  the  stress  of  elastic  limit 
equaled  17,620  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the 
strength  at  rupture  equaled  19,700  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

PHILIPPINE  WOODS  AMERICAN  WOODS 

Apulag-amo    15,110  Pignut  hickory    10,900 

Betis  11,270  Mockernut  hickory  . .   10,100 

Dungon    10,370  Butternut  hickory  . . .     9,600 

Molave    10,400  Pecan  hickory   9,100 

Calamansa/nay     10,370  Cuban  pine 9,080 

Dilang  butiqui    9,780  White  oak 8,500 

Bitanhol    9,670  Texan  oak 8,100 

Ibil    9,000  Green  ash  8,000 

Tindalo    8,800  Water  oak    7,800 

Supa   7,230  White  ash 7,200 

Tucan  calao 7,170  Long  leaf  pine 7,930 

SCIENTIFIC  SURVEY  BY  THE  INSULAR  FORESTRY 
BUREAU. 

The  Insular  Bureau  of  Forestry  is  pushing  the 
work  of  examining  and  surveying  the  public  forest 
lands  as  rapidly  as  is  consistent  with  thoroughness 
and  the  force  at  its  disposal.  The  surveys  afford 


SCIENTIFIC  SURVEY.  367 

much  useful  information  regarding  the  stands  and 
varieties  of  timber,  their  peculiarities  of  growth, 
character  of  the  soil  and  rock  formation.  In  addi- 
tion there  will  be  notes  on  logging,  methods  and  cost 
of  logging,  labor,  means  of  transportation,  character 
of  roads  and  streams,  as  well  as  a  topographical  map 
on  which  will  be  shown  the  location  of  the  valuation 
surveys,  thus  enabling  anyone  to  see  at  a  glance  the 
amount  and  value  of  timber  available  and  the  possi- 
bilities of  bringing  it  to  market.  The  investigation 
will  extend  all  over  the  islands  as  trained  men  capa- 
ble of  managing  such  work  are  secured  from  the 
United  States.  This  system  of  detailed  survey  has 
been  in  operation  for  four  years,  and  a  considerable 
extent  of  territory  has  been  covered. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  that  no  exploration  of  the 
Philippine  forests  has  ever  been  attempted  before 
upon  a  similar  scale,  and  that  no  scientific  examina- 
tion of  the  stand  of  timber  has  ever  been  made.  The 
only  reliable  information  available  on  the  subject  is 
that  which  has  been  secured  by  the  Insular  Forestry 
Bureau  and  the  experts  employed  by  the  Philippine- 
Commission  at  various  times  to  make  special  reports. 

The  statements  of  casual  observers  are  apt  to  be 
misleading.  Foreman  sums  up  the  difficulties  of 
lumbering  in  the  islands  very  fairly,  and  concludes 
that  "with  sufficient  capital,  a  handsome  profit  is 
to  be  realized  in  this  line  of  business.77  Sawyer,  in 
his  delightfully  breezy  but  somewhat  dogmatic  style, 


308  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

disposes  of  the  Philippine  forests  in  a  few  para- 
graphs designed  to  demonstrate  that  they  are  not 
worth  the  working.  He  tells  us  that  "the  greatest 
nonsense  is  talked  about  the  value  of  the  Philippine 
forests,  but  in  fact  it  is  only  in  the  fever-stricken 
island  of  Mindoro  and  in  certain  parts  of  Palawan 
and  Mindanao  that  any  large  and  valuable  trees  can 
be  found.  ...  In  Luzon  all  the  large  trees  of 
valuable  timber  have  long  ago  been  cut."*  These 
and  most  of  the  other  similar  assertions  contained  in 
Sawyer's  chapter  on  "Forestal"  are  contradicted  by 
established  fact. 

The  following  matter  relating  to  the  Philippine 
forests  is,  in  the  main,  derived  from  the  official  re- 
port of  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry,  and 
where  quotation  marks  appear  they  indicate  literal 
extracts  from  that  document. 

For  the  most  part,  the  forest  territory  is  well  sup- 
plied with  streams  sufficiently  large  for  driving  logs. 
In  some  cases  they  may  require  a  little  clearing.  The 
native  operations  are  conducted  upon  the  simplest 
and  easiest  lines  without  regard  to  ultimate  results. 


*  For  refutation  of  these  statements  see  the  report  of  the 
Chief  of  the  Forestry  Bureau;  the  preliminary  report  on 
working  plan  of  Bataan  Province  by  Forester  R.  C.  Bryant ; 
and  the  report  of  Mr.  John  Orr,  manager  of  the  Philippine 
Lumber  and  Development  Company.  All  of  the  foregoing 
are  contained  in  the  Report  of  the  Philippine  Commission, 
Part  I,  1902. 


NATIVE  LUMBERING.  369 

The  water  courses  and  the  carabao  are  the  only  means 
of  transportation  from  the  stand.  In  the  former  case 
bamboo  rafts  are  often  needed  to  give  buoyancy  to 
the  .dense  hardwoods  and  in  the  latter  the  haul  must 
be  adjusted  to  the  limited  capacity  of  the  beast.  As 
a  consequence  the  native  seldom  gets  out  the  largest 
trees,  and  if  he  touches  them,  usually  cuts  at  a  waste- 
ful height,  sometimes  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  from 
the  ground.  Such  a  thing  as  a  cross-cut  saw  is  un- 
known in  the  Philippine  forest.  All  the  felling  and 
other  work  is  done  with  a  long,  narrow,  single- 
bitted  axe,  and  in  order  to  minimize  the  labor  the 
chopper  often  burns  the  tree  partially  through.  The 
enormous  waste  involved  in  such  crude  methods  may 
easily  be  imagined.  It  is  estimated  that  of  the 
amount  of  marketable  timber  cut,  no  more  than 
thirty-five  per  cent,  is  got  out. 

WASTEFUL    METHODS    OF    NATIVE    LUMBERING. 

A  fact  mentioned  by  Captain  Ahern  strikingly 
illustrates  the  haphazard  nature  of  the  industry  as 
carried  on  at  present.  It  appears  that  there  is  in 
the  vicinity  of  Manila  a  fine  tract  of  timber  land 
which  has  been  protected  up  to  the  present  by  the 
presence  of  a  slight  obstruction  in  a  stream  that  an 
American  company  would  have  removed  in  a  few 
days  and  at  a  nominal  expense. 

The  average  haul  to  tidewater  is  short,  and  "a  com- 
bination of  a  short  line  of  railway  with  the  wire  cable 

24 


370  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

system  of  logging  would  be  ideal  for  a  country  with 
the  topography  that  these  islands  present."  In  some 
localities  skidding  for  short  distances  with  carabao 
might  be  necessary  in  combination  with  the  plant  in 
question. 

Under  the  present  system  the  licensee  usually  con- 
tracts with  the  loggers  to  deliver  on  the  beach  certain 
species  of  hewn  timber.  The  loggers  pick  out  the 
likeliest  trees  for  their  purpose,  chop  and  burn  them 
down,  cut  off  such  logs  as  their  carabao  can  draw  and 
leave  a  remainder  of  from  forty  to  sixty  per  cent, 
to  decay  upon  the  ground.  As  a  consequence  of  this 
method  of  logging  the  forests  on  many  of  the  islands 
have  been  culled  to  a  distance  of  two  or  three  miles 
from  the  coast  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  larger  towns. 
The  Philippine  Lumber  and  Development  Company 
have  found  that  three  miles  on  a  straight  line  or  five 
miles  following  the  winding  of  a  valley  are  the  ex- 
treme limits  of  profitable  lumbering  with  the  carabao. 
Successful  operations  on  any  scale  of  magnitude  will 
depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  employment  of  this 
animal  in  only  an  auxiliary  capacity.  Carabao  are 
now  scarce  and  cost  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred 
dollars.  Although  strong,  they  are  not  hardy  beasts. 
They  need  to  be  watered  several  times  a  day,  which, 
aside  from  the  inconvenience  and  waste  of  time  often 
entailed,  renders  their  employment  upon  high  moun- 
tain slopes,  where  much  of  the  best  timber  is  to  be 
had,  practically  impossible. 


COST  OF  LUMBER  OPERATIONS.  371 

Nearly  all  the  timber  that  is  shipped  to  Manila 
is  squared  in  the  forest,  and  is  usually  from  12  to  24 
inches  wide  at  the  top  and  as  long  as  the  carabao 
will  haul.  This  limitation  leads  to  a  great  deal  of 
the  clear  length  being  left  in  the  woods  to  rot.  Spe- 
cial efforts  are,  however,  made  to  get  out  extra  lengths 
for  use  in  shipbuilding.  The  logs  of  dungon,  betis, 
and  guijo  will  sometimes  measure  from  50  to  60  feet ; 
those  of  batitinan,  mangachapuy,  and  palo-maria  from 
19  to  32  feet.  Lanan,  the  tree  from  which  bancas 
are  chiefly  fashioned,  is  occasionally  cut  the  entire 
clear  length,  and  gives  a  boat  from  32  to  65  feet  long 
and  from  24  to  48  inches  wide.  Lauan,  and  more 
especially  apitong,  furnish  boards  with  a  top  diameter 
of  12  inches  and  from  82  to  98  feet  long.  Molave 
timbers  are  seldom  over  16  to  32  feet  long  and  16  to 
32  inches  square.  However,  there  is  a  demand  for 
the  crooked,  tough  and  durable  branches  of  molave 
and  dancalan  for  purposes  of  ship  construction. 
Calantas  is  used  mainly  for  cigar  boxes,  but  also  to 
a  limited  extent  for  interior  finishing.  It  yields  logs 
of  65  feet  and  occasionally  as  long  as  98  feet. 

COST     OF    LUMBER    OPERATION     UNDER    THE     PRESENT 
SYSTEM. 

The  Philippine  Lumber  and  Development  Com- 
pany pays  the  following  scale  of  wages:  Choppers 
and  hewers,  35  cents  per  day,  without  board;  trail- 
builders,  skidders,  and  drivers,  25  cents  per  day, 


372  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

without  board ;  hire  of  carabao,  50  cents  and  75  cents 
per  day.  For  sawing  the  hewed  timber  into  boards 
by  hand  they  pay  the  following  prices  per  square  foot : 

Cuartos.* 

Dungon  and  betis  4 

Molave,  dancalan  and  acle 3 

Guijo  and  mangachapuy 2 

Apitong  and  lauan  1 

The  cost  of  logs  laid  down  on  the  beach  varies  from 
3  to  15  cents  per  cubic  foot ;  the  average  for  logs  of 
superior  woods  is  less  than  10  cents.  Modern  facili- 
ties would  greatly  reduce  these  figures.  The  trans- 
portation charges  per  cubic  foot  for  logs  delivered  in 
Manila  are :  From  Masbate,  20  cents ;  from  Tayabas, 
15  to  17%  cents;  from  Subig  (by  raft),  2%  cents. 
Lumber  companies  using  their  own  vessels  would 
reduce  the  cost  of  transportation  to  about  one-third  of 
these  rates. 

The  following  table  of  quotations  for  logs  and 
boards  in  Manila  is  a  fair  criterion  of  average  prices, 
but  the  tendency  is  constantly  upward  as  the  demand 
increases  without  any  appreciable  expansion  of  the 
local  supply : 

Molave,  in  log,  per  c.  f.,  37%  cents;  sawed,  per 
c.  f.,  80  cents;  M.  B.  M.,  $75.00. 

Narra,  in  log,  per  c.  f.,  41%  cents ;  sawed,  per  c.  f., 
831/2  cents;  M.  B.  M.,  $82.50. 


*  Cuarto  equals  about  one-third  of  a  cent. 


LUMBER  INDUSTRY.  373 

Ipil,  in  log,  per  c.  f.,  34  cents ;  sawed,  per  c.  f.,  74 
cents;  M.  B.  M.,  $62.50. 

Guijo,  in  log,  per  c.  f.,  22  cents;  sawed,  per  c.  f., 
65  cents;  M.  B.  M.,  $40.00. 

Supa,  in  log,  per  c.  f.,  21  cents;  sawed,  per  c.  f., 
64  cents;  M.  B.  M.,  $45.00. 

Lauan,  in  log,  per  c.  f.,  13  cents;  sawed,  per  c.  f., 
27  cents;  M.  B.  M.,  $19.00. 

Tanguile,  in  log,  per  c.  f.,  16  cents ;  sawed,  per  c.  f., 
50  cents ;  II.  S.  C.  M.,  $25.00. 

Apitong,  in  log,  per  c.  f.,  161/2  cents;  sawed,  per 
c.  f.,  31  cents ;  U.  S.  C.  M.,  $25.00. 

POSSIBILITIES   OF   THE   LUMBER   INDUSTRY. 

The  Chief  of  the  Forestry  Bureau  states  that  "there 
is  a  demand  in  Manila,  in  fact  all  through  the  Orient, 
for  construction  timber ;  the  demand  will  continue  as 
many  important  public  works  are  in  contemplation  in 
the  Philippines,  many  private  enterprises  will  make 
demands,  thousands  of  houses  must  be  built,  and 
when  the  present  condition  of  these  islands  and  the 
vast  amount  of  work  to  be  done  are  considered  it 
would  be  difficult  to  foretell  when  the  present  high 
prices  of  lumber  will  materially  lessen.  .  .  .  The 
United  States  market  is  not  considered  in  this 
proposition.  The  Philippines  market  will  be  strong 
for  many  years.  The  Chinese  market  is  always 
strong  and  always  will  be,  for  all  of  lowland  China  is 
without  timber.  The  Philippine  construction  timber 


374  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

is  considered  by  many  engineers  in  China  the  best  tim- 
ber to  be  had  in  the  Orient.  Strong  as  has  been  the 
Chinese  market  for  timber  in  the  past,  the  future 
promises  even  better,  as  there  are  indications  that 
foreign  enterprise  and  capital  are  securing  conces- 
sions which  will  waken  that  vast  Empire.  .  .  . 

" There  are  very  few  lumber  companies  here  prop- 
erly equipped  to  handle  large  logs ;  it  will  take  com- 
panies contemplating  such  work  many  months  to  estab- 
lish themselves,  to  secure  labor,  and  transportation  to 
deliver  their  first  cargo;  and  if  such  companies  are 
not  prepared  to  furnish  master  mechanics,  expert  gang 
bosses,  in  fact  all  the  skilled  labor  required,  with  a 
full  stock  of  the  best  supply  material,  it  would  be 
hazardous  to  attempt  to  remove  the  large  logs  which 
must  be  cut  and  brought  to  market  if  these  forest 
tracts  are  exploited  properly." 

At  this  time  the  Philippines  are  not  exporting  one- 
fiftieth  of  the  lumber  for  which  a  profitable  market 
could  be  found  under  scientific  and  economical  meth- 
ods of  production,  whilst  each  year  large  quantities 
of  pine  and"  redwood  enter  the  country  from  Ore- 
gon and  California.  A  corporation  with,  say,  $2,000,- 
000  capital  operating  logging  roads,  saw-mills  and  a 
fleet  of  sailing  vessels,  including  barges  for  inter- 
island  transportation,  would  surely  return  handsome 
dividends  to  its  stockholders.  The  profits  would  per- 
mit such  vessels  to  return  in  ballast,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  cargoes  from  Hongkong  are  always  obtain- 


FORESTRY    REGULATIONS.  375 

able,  and  schooners  delivering  at  the  Pacific  ports 
of  the  United  States  might  carry  back  American 
soft  woods.  The  need  of  the  trade  for  specially-built 
lumber  vessels  is  pronounced.  It  is  often  necessary 
to  cut  up  logs  at  the  port  of  clearance  in  order  to 
load  them  upon  ships  of  limited  hold  capacity.  Under 
present  conditions  the  establishment  of  a  market  in 
the  United  States  for  the  valuable  hardwoods  of  the 
Philippines  is  impossible,  but  a  company  running 
vessels  direct  to  Seattle  or  San  Francisco  could,  with- 
out doubt,  open  up  such  a  market,  and  create  an  active 
demand  amongst  manufacturers  of  high-grade  fur- 
niture and  finishings.  By  jobbing  its  product  in  this 
country  the  company  would  save  all  the  profits  from 
the  forest  to  the  factory. 

Considering  the  facility  with  which  operations 
might  be  instituted,  the  known  superiority  of  the 
product,  the  certainty  of  markets,  and  the  high  prices 
obtainable,  lumbering  offers  the  best  field  for  the 
heavy  investment  of  capital  in  the  Philippines. 

FORESTRY  REGULATIONS. 

Corporations  giving  evidence  of  their  ability  and 
intention  to  operate  upon  a  scale  of  considerable  mag- 
nitude may  secure  from  the  Forestry  Bureau  licenses 
for  a  period  not  to  exceed  twenty  years.  The  area 
within  which  the  company  may  work  will  be  specif- 
ically denned  and  the  trees  to  be  cut  will  be  indicated 
by  a  government  forester.  This  official  will  measure 


376  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  timber  felled  and  assess  the  charges.  Market- 
able timber  is  classified  in  four  groups,  and  the  ter- 
ritories in  two  divisions.  The  tariff  is  regulated 
primarily  by  the  character  of  the  timber,  modified, 
however,  by  the  locality  in  which  the  operation  is 
conducted.  For  instance,  the  tax  upon  a  tree  of  the 
first  group  felled  in  Mindanao  would  not  be  as  great 
as  that  upon  a  similar  tree  cut  in  a  locality,  say 
Bataan,  more  accessible  to  the  Manila  market.  It 
is  easy  to  conceive  that  a  company  operating  its 
own  vessels  might  derive  an  enhanced  advantage  from 
this  arrangement.  The  government  charge  will  prob- 
ably average  about  six  per  cent,  of  the  selling  price. 

Several  companies  are  now  negotiating  to  secure 
tracts  of  land  large  enough  to  justify  the  installation 
of  modern  plants,  and  it  is  likely  that  within  the 
next  few  years  the  output  of  Philippine  lumber  will 
be  very  much  increased. 

During  1903  upwards  of  five  million  cubic  feet  of 
lumber  was  marketed,  of  which  4,740,738  cubic  feet, 
valued  at  about  $175,000,  came  from  the  public  for- 
ests. In  the  same  year  87,000  board  feet  of  native 
lumber  were  exported.  On  the  other  hand  there  were 
imported  113,483  cubic  feet  of  lumber  on  commercial 
liners,  as  well  as  6,841,207  board  feet  and  4,746  foot 
tons  for  the  use  of  the  Government.  The  imported 
lumber  was  laid  down  in  Manila  at  from  $37.50  to 
$48.50  for  Oregon  pine  and  at  from  $45  to  $55  for 
redwood  per  thousand  board  feet. 


GUTTA  PERCHA.  377 

Gutta  Percha  is  one  of  the  important  products  of 
the  Philippine  forests.  Elsewhere  the  tree  is  found 
only  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and 
the  small  islands  lying  between  them.  Tawi  Tawi 
and  Southern  Mindanao  are  the  sources  of  the  Philip- 
pine product.  The  gum  is  secured  by  a  ruinous 
method  which,  unless  it  is  checked,  must  ultimately 
result  in  extinguishing  the  already  inadequate  sup- 
ply. The  practice  of  the  native  gatherers  in  all 
gutta  percha  regions  is  much  the  same.  The  tree  is 
cut  down  and  the  bark  ringed  so  that  the  milk  flows 
from  it  at  several  points.  The  outflow  is  caught  in 
cocoanut  shells,  and  a  tree  yields  at  the  utmost  two 
pounds,  which  is  about  ten  per  cent,  of  its  capacity. 
The  output  of  the  Philippine  forests  is  handled  ex- 
clusively by  Chinese  traders,  who  make  enormous 
profits  in  the  business.  The  prices  paid  to  the  Moros 
range  from  ten  to  fifteen  pesos  per  picul,  and  pay- 
ment is  frequently  made  in  cloth  and  other  commodi- 
ties. The  Chinaman's  standard  picul  in  buying,  a  fic- 
titious measure  created  by  himself,  is  162l/>  pounds, 
whilst  he  markets  the  product  at  the  Chinese  picul  of 
~L33l/2  pounds.  Singapore  is  the  central  depot  for  gut- 
ta percha.  Practically  all  of  the  production  is  shipped 
there,  and  thence  distributed.  In  the  past  fifty  years 
upwards  of  300,000,000  pounds  of  the  material  have 
been  received  at  Singapore.  A  writer  in  "Opportuni- 
ties in  the  Philippines"  suggests  that  these  figures 
afford  some  clue  to  the  number  of  trees  which  have 


378  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

been  destroyed  in  that  time,  calculating  on  .a  basis  of 
two  pounds  to  the  tree,  and  allowing  ten  per  cent,  for 
wastage.  The  result  of  such  a  computation,  however, 
would  fall  very  short  of  indicating  the  actual  extent 
of  the  destruction. 

The  Insular  Government  has  under  consideration 
several  plans  for  putting  a  stop  to  present  methods 
in  the  industry,  and  it  is  likely  that  the  production 
of  gutta  percha  in  the  Philippines  will  become  a  semi- 
monopoly  of  the  Government.  Unless  something  of 
this  sort  is  done  the  trees  will  disappear  from  the 
Archipelago  in  the  course  of  twenty  years,  if  we 
may  judge  by  the  number  which  have  been  removed 
during  the  ten  or  less  years  that  the  industry  has  been 
in  existence. 

THE  GUTTA  PERCHA  TRADE. 

The  chief,  almost  the  sole,  use  to  which  gutta  percha 
is  put  is  in  covering  electric  submarine  and  land 
cables.  It  is  practically  impervious  to  the  action  of 
water  and  so  admirably  adapted  to  these  purposes  for 
which  no  satisfactory  substitute  has  been  found. 
During  the  past  decade  the  price  and  demand  for  the 
material  have  greatly  increased  with  very  little  re- 
sponse in  the  supply,  however.  The  quotation  for 
the  different  varieties  have  trebled  in  that  time. 

In  recent  years  extensive  scientific  experiments 
have  been  made  in  the  direction  of  the  cultivation 
of  the  tree  and  the  extraction  of  the  latex.  It  is 


FUTURE  OF  THE  GUTTA  PERCHA  TRADE.   379 

found  that  the  leaf  yields  a  good  grade  of  gutta  percha 
which  on  test  has  proved  to  provide  a  satisfactory 
insulating  material. 

The  future  of  the  industry  in  the  Philippines  must 
depend  upon  planting  and  strict  Government  regula- 
tion. It  would  seem  that  a  gutta  percha  monopoly 
conducted  somewhat  upon  the  lines  of  the  opium 
monopoly  of  the  Indian  Government  wTould  produce 
the  best  results  with  the  greatest  benefit  to  all  con- 
cerned. It  would  probably  provide  a  congenial  and 
certainly  a  profitable  occupation  for  a  large  portion 
of  the  population  of  southern  Mindanao  and  the  Sulu 
Archipelago  and  could  hardly  fail  to  be  a  powerful 
factor  in  reducing  them  to  orderly  industry.  Such 
an  arrangement  would  also  work  toward  a  solution  of 
the  dato  problem.  The  dato  might  be  usefully  em- 
ployed as  a  sort  of  supervisor  in  his  district  as  the 
zamindar  is  in  the  Indian  opium  village.  The  Ben- 
gal system  includes  advances  to  the  cultivator,  which 
are  deducted  from  the  payment  for  his  produce  when 
he  brings  it  in.  And  this  would  necessarily  be  a 
feature  of  a  governmental  system  of  cultivating  gutta 
percha  in  the  Philippines.  The  Indian  ryot  may  cul- 
tivate opium  or  not,  as  he  chooses,  but  if  he  does  so 
the  Government  undertakes  to  buy  his  produce  at 
stated  figures,  whilst  it  places  certain  restrictions 
upon  the  methods  of  growth  and  extraction.  In 
short,  the  Indian  opiuni  system  appears  to  afford  an 
admirable  model  for  the  Insular  Government  in  the 
establishment  of  a  state  monopoly  in  gutta  percha. 


380  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Rubber  trees  and  vines  are  found  in  almost  all 
tropical  countries,  but  marketing  the  product  gen- 
erally presents  so  many  difficulties  that  the  industry 
is  profitably  pursued  in  few  parts  of  the  world.  The 
demand  for  rubber  is  permanent  at  good  prices  and 
the  supply  in  recent  years  has  never  satisfied  the 
market.  The  uses  of  the  material  are  constantly 
extending  and  nothing  can  be  found  to  take  its  place. 

RUBBER  MAY  BE  A  LATENT  SOURCE  OF  WEALTH. 

The  Philippines  do  not  at  present  afford  a  field 
for  the  rubber  industry,  although  the  plant  grows 
luxuriantly  in  the  southern  islands.  The  Forestry 
Bureau,  fully  alive  to  the  importance  of  gutta  percha 
and  rubber,  is  making  experiments  and  investigations 
which  should  lead  to  the  scientific  and  profitable  cul- 
tivation of  both. 

Expert  opinion  favors  the  belief  that  rubber  plan- 
tations in  the  Philippines  under  skilled  direction,  em- 
ploying the  best  methods  of  extraction,  should  give 
rich  returns  to  investors.  This  is  not,  however,  an 
enterprise  to  be  entered  upon  without  ample  knowl- 
edge and  experience.  A  considerable  amount  of  cap- 
ital is  also  necessary  to  success,  for  although  it  is 
authoritatively  stated  that  the  returns  would  be  from 
$150  to  $200  per  acre,  the  first  crop  could  not  be  ex- 
pected short  of  six  years  after  planting,  and  it  would 
be  subject  to  some  danger  of  destruction  or  damage. 
It  would  seem  that  in  several  of  its  features  rubber 
cultivation  resembles  that  of  cacao. 


CATTLE-RAISING.  381 

As  a  result  of  the  ravages  of  war  and  the  inroads 
of  rinderpest,  the  cattle-raising  industry  of  the  Philip- 
pines has  become  extinct  during  the  past  few  years. 
Ten  years  ago  large  herds  of  cattle  and  horses  were 
to  be  seen  everywhere,  and  especially  in  northern 
Luzon.  In  1902  Mr.  Elmer  Merrill  reported  to  the 
Insular  Bureau  of  Agriculture:  "From  enquiries 
made  along  the  route  I  learned  that  the  cattle  indus- 
try was  at  one  time  quite  prominent  in  Nueva  Viz- 
caya,  and  especially  so  in  Isabela,  but  due  to  the 
insurrection  and  recent  ravages  of  rinderpest  the 
herds  have  been  much  depleted  or  entirely  exter- 
minated. In  I^ueva  Vizcaya  I  saw  only  about  twelve 
head  of  cattle,  but  they  were  in  magnificent  condition. 
In  Isabela  I  saw  but  two  herds — one  of  about  twelve 
head  and  one  of  about  twenty-five — and  like  those 
in  Nueva  Vizcaya,  they  were  in  excellent  condition." 
To-day  there  is  not  a  herd  of  considerable  size  in  the 
Archipelago.  In  a  less  degree,  but  very  seriously, 
the  number  of  horses  has  been  reduced  by  surra  and 
glanders.  In  order  to  relieve  the  consequent  distress 
as  much  as  possible  the  Insular  Government  imported 
large  numbers  of  draft  animals  from  India  and 
China,  but  at  the  best  this  could  only  be  a  tem- 
porary measure. 

It  is  questionable  if  a  native  even  amongst  those 
who  have  the  money  could  be  induced  to  re-enter  the 
industry,  so  fearful  have  they  become  of  the  dread 
rinderpest.  But  the  investigations  of  the  Bureau  of 


382  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Agriculture  lead  to  the  belief  that  immunity  from 
both  rinderpest  and  surra  may  be  secured  by  inocula- 
tion. However  that  may  be,  there  are  methods  by 
which  cattle  raising  can  be  carried  on  in  the  islands 
with  practically  no  risk  of  disease  and  the  returns 
for  years  to  come  would  be  extremely  large. 

LUZON  HAS   THE   FINEST  GRASS   COUNTRY  IN    THE 
WORLD. 

Mr.  Merrill  states,  and  he  is  corroborated  by  sev- 
eral observers,  that  "most  magnificent  grazing 
grounds  exist  in  eastern  Pangasinan,  northern  Nueva 
Ecija,  Nueva  Vizcaya,  Isabela,  and  Cagayan,  prob- 
ably also  in  the  other  provinces,  mostly  rolling  up- 
lands in  the  three  former  provinces  and  broad  level 
prairie  lands  in  the  two  latter,  although  so  far  as 
abundance  and  quality  of  the  grasses  are  concerned 
there  is  apparently  no  difference,  the  same  species 
growing  on  the  prairies  as  on  the  hills.  These  grasses 
consist  of  ...  fine-stemmed,  fine-leaved  grasses 
which  in  the  United  States  would  be  popularly  known 
as  bunch  grasses,  as  they  mostly  grow  in  small  tufts, 
not  being  true  turf-formirig  grasses,  yet  there  is  suf- 
ficient abundance  of  turf-forming  or  partially  turf- 
forming  grasses  so  that,  notwithstanding  the  heavy 
tropical  rains  to  which  this  region  is  subject  during 
several  months  of  the  year,  so  close  is  the  turf  that 
absolutely  no  signs  of  gullying  or  washing  were  ob- 
served even  on  the  very  steep  hillsides,  .  .  . 


PHILIPPINE  CATTLE.  383 

which  shows  what  may  be  expected  if  cattle  are 
ever  introduced  here  in  abundance.  .  .  .  The 
grazing  lands  in  eastern  Pangasinan,  northern  Nueva 
Ecija,  and  throughout  Nueva  Vizcaya  are  character- 
ized by  their  rolling,  hilly  character,  the  ravines,  and 
small  valleys,  tops  of  the  higher  hills,  and  surround- 
ing mountains,  being  densely  forested,  while  in  every 
small  valley  one  finds  streams  of  pure,  clear  water, 
it  being  impossible  to  travel  three  or  four  miles  in 
any  direction  without  finding  good  water.  Hence  it 
will  be  observed  that  there  is  an  abundance  of  feed, 
water,  and  shelter,  the  requisites  for  an  ideal  cattle 
country;  and  especially  to  be  noted  here  are  the 
topographical  features  of  the  country  which  in  cases 
of  epidemic  of  rinderpest  are  of  especial  value,  as  in 
these  valleys  whole  herds  of  cattle  can  be  isolated,  and 
with  a  little  care  and  watchfulness,  guarded  for 
months  against  infection  by  contact  or  through  the 
water  supply." 

KEADT   MARKETS  FOR  PHILIPPINE   CATTLE. 

There  are  no  better  grazing  grounds  than  these 
in  the  United  States,  probably  not  in  the  world,  and 
under  the  conditions  described,  cattle  might  be  raised 
with  little  or  no  risk  and  of  the  finest  quality.  The 
districts  in  question  have  the  advantage  of  proximity 
to  the  Manila  market,  whither  the  herds  might  easily 
be  driven  upon  the  hoof.  Before  long,  however,  the 
railroad  will  run  through  a  great  part  of  these  graz- 
ing grounds  in  Nueva  Vizcaya  and  Nueva  Ecija  and 


384  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  Manila-Dagupan  line  is  already  sufficiently  near 
to  those  of  Pangasinan. 

At  present  all  the  meat  consumed  in  Manila  is 
shipped  in  on  the  hoof  from  Singapore  or  as  refrig- 
erated meat  from  Australia  and  the  United  States. 
The  prevailing  prices  are  high,  and  would  yield  a 
handsome  profit  to  local  cattle  raisers.  It  is  an  in- 
dustry that  would  require  comparatively  little  capital 
for  its  prosecution  in  the  Philippines.  The  stock 
would  be  mainly  the  native  cattle  of  India  and  China, 
which  thrive  in  the  Archipelago.  The  trotting  bul- 
lock of  India  would  appear  to  be  a  likely  beast  for 
introduction  to  the  Philippines,  and,  indeed,  he  is 
employed  to  a  slight  extent  in  Pangasinan. 

Another  source  of  profit  in  this  connection  is  hay. 
The  districts  under  consideration  would  give  a  heavy 
yield  per  acre  of  the  finest  quality,  and  the  character 
of  the  ground  is  such  as  to  permit  of  cutting  and  har- 
vesting being  done  by  machinery.  At  present  thou- 
ands  of  tons  of  hay  are  imported  from  the  United 
States  yearly  at  figures  that  would  give  good  returns 
to  the  home  grower. 

A  corporation  that  should  raise  sufficient  cattle  to 
supply  the  local  demand  and  run  a  plant  for  the 
utilization  of  the  by-product  would  without  doubt 
realize  large  returns  on  its  capital. 

MINERAL  WEALTH. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  anything  very  definite  about 
the  mineral  resources  of  the  Philippines.  They  have 


MINERAL  WEALTH.  385 

never  been  thoroughly  investigated,  and  what  little 
mining  has  been  done  was  of  a  desultory  and  not  over- 
scientific  character.  It  is  an  established  fact  that 
rich  deposits  of  various  valuable  metals  and  of  coal 
exist,  but  with  few  exceptions  the  precise  extent  and 
nature  of  them  have  not  been  ascertained.  However, 
the  investigations  of  the  Insular  Bureau  of  Mining 
and  the  discoveries  of  more  than  a  thousand  practical 
American  miners  who  are  prospecting  in  the  Archi- 
pelago will  throw  a  great  deal  of  light  upon  the  sub- 
ject in  the  near  future. 

From  present  knowledge  it  would  appear  that  tL> 
most  promising  fields  are  in  Benguet  and  Lepanto- 
Bontoc.  The  Reports  of  the  Philippine  Commis- 
sion (1902-1903)  state  that  "in  the  province  of  Le- 
panto  at  Mancayan  and  Suyoc  there  are  immense 
deposits  of  gray  copper  and  copper  sulphide,  and 
running  through  the  ore  are  veins  of  gold-bearing 
quartz  which  is  more  or  less  disintegrated  and  in 
places  is  extremely  rich.  This  copper  ore  has  been 
assayed  and  the  claim  is  made  that  it  runs  on  an  aver- 
age eight  per  cent,  copper,  while  gold  is  often  present 
in  considerable  quantities.  The  deposits  are  so  exten- 
sive as  to  seem  almost  inexhaustible.  .  .  .  As 
early  as  1856-57  two  concessions  were  granted  to  the 
Cantabro  Philippine  Mining  Company,  and  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  exploit  them  and  market  their 
product.  Rude  methods  of  mining,  ruder  methods 
of  extracting  the  metal,  arid  still  more  rude  and 

25 


386  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

primitive  methods  of  transportation,  combined  with 
lack  of  sufficient  capital  and  suitable  labor,  led  to  the 
abandonment  of  this  attempt,  and  for  more  than 
twenty  years  the  property,  which  in  itself  is  a 
small  claim  upon  the  immense  ledge  above  referred 
to,  has  been  occupied  only  to  the  limited  extent  re- 
quired by  the  Spanish  mining  laws  to  prevent  the  can- 
cellation of  the  concession.  The  officer  at  present  in 
charge  of  the  Mining  Bureau  characterizes  this  deposit 
as  an  'undoubted  bonanza.'  The  main  thing  neces- 
sary to  its  exploitation  is  the  opening  up  of  a 
short  line  of  communication  with  the  coast."  And 
it  may  be  added,  this  is  probably  the  chief  requi- 
site to  successful  mining  in  several  parts  of  the 
Archipelago. 

GOLD  HAS  BEEN  MINED  FOR  CENTURIES. 

Gold  is  known  to  exist  in  various  states  on  several 
of  the  islands,  but  to  what  extent  it  may  be  worked 
with  profit  is  yet  to  be  definitely  determined.  The 
Igorots  have  carried  on  placer  mining  for  centuries 
and  with  apparently  good  returns.  They  never  at- 
tempt extraction  from  rock  that  fails  to  exhibit  a 
considerable  quantity  of  free  gold.  Modern  mining 
machinery  has  never  been  used  in  the  country,  and 
its  introduction  may  reveal  altogether  unsuspected 
possibilities.  In  some  localities  the  conditions  are 
favorable  to  hydraulic  mining.  Prospectors  in  the 
Lepanto-Benguet-Bontoc  district,  according  to  the  re- 


IRON  AND  COAL.  387 

port  of  the  Commission,  have  located  very  extensive 
deposits  of  low-grade  free-milling  ore  which  will  yield 
large  and  certain  returns  under  scientific  treatment. 
Unless  the  statements  of  those  who  have  been  work- 
ing in  this  region  are  utterly  false  very  valuable  de- 
posits have  been  located.  These  men,  who  are  for  the 
most  part  experienced  miners  from  our  Western 
States,  have  had  sufficient  faith  in  their  claims  to 
camp  upon  them  for  many  weary  months  whilst  wait- 
ing for  the  passage  of  mining  regulations  that  would 
establish  their  rights  and  permit  them  to  operate. 
These  desiderata  were  effected  by  an  act  of  Congress 
dated  October  7,  1903,  since  when  several  mining 
enterprises  of  importance  have  been  set  on  foot  with 
good  prospects  of  success. 

IRON  AND  COAL  EXIST  IN  ABUNDANCE. 

There  are  undoubtedly  deposits  of  high-grade  iron 
ore  in  different  parts  of  the  Archipelago,  but  until 
the  coal  measures  have  been  more  extensively  opened 
up  iron  cannot  be  profitably  worked.  Coal*  is  one  of 
the  pressing  requirements  of  the  Philippines.  At 
present  it  is  imported  in  large  quantities  from  Aus- 
tralia and  Japan  and  costs  wholesale  in  Manila  from 
$5  to  $7  per  ton.  The  production  of  local  coal, 


*  "The  Coal  Measures  of  the  Philippines,"  C.  H.  Burritt, 
Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  Washington,  D.  C.  This  publica- 
tion is  recommended  to  those  who  are  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject. 


388  THE  PHILIPPINES 

which  could  be  put  upon  the  market  at  about  half 
the  price  with  profit  to  the  miner,  would  give  a  great 
impetus  to  all  kinds  of  manufacturing  enterprises  in 
the  islands.  Lignites  are  known  to  exist  in  Luzon, 
the  Island  of  Batan,  Mindoro,  Masbate,  Negros,  Cebu, 
Mindanao,  and  other  islands.  The  island  of  Batan, 
which  is  a  dependency  of  the  Province  of  Albay,  has 
been  described  as  "a  solid  mass  of  coal."  It  is  now 
in  a  process  of  rapid  development.  Several  private 
corporations  as  well  as  the  United  States  Government 
are  engaged  in  mining  upon  the  island.  A  company 
has  opened  rich  deposits  upon  the  east  coast  and  has 
constructed  an  electric  railway  connecting  the  mines 
with  a  deep  water  harbor  on  Calanaga  Bay. 

The  Chief  of  the  Mining  Bureau  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  most  important  of  the  mineral  resources  of 
the  Philippines  is  the  best  grade  of  lignite  of  which 
there  are  two  varieties — black  and  brown.  The  best 
coal  is  free  from  sulphur,  relatively  low  in  ash,  and 
is  found  in  the  Island  of  Batan,  in  Bulalacao  and 
Semarara,  southern  Mindanao,  in  Danac  and  Com- 
postela,  Cebu;  on  the  Gulf  of  Sibuguey,  in  southern 
Mindanao :  at  Colatrava,  Xegros ;  and  at  Bislig,  in 
eastern  Mindanao.  It  is  of  the  Tertiary  age  and 
similar  in  most  important  respects  to  the  products 
of  Wyoming,  Washington,  and  Japan.  Some  of  the 
coal  of  Abra,  Rizal,  and  eastern  Kegros  is  also  be- 
lieved to  be  suitable  for  use  in  steamships  and  sta- 
tionary furnaces,  but  there  is  some  difference  of  opin- 


IRON  AND  COAL.  *  389 

ion  on  this  score  among  experts.  One  of  the  most 
promising  fields  is  that  near  Bulalacao.  There  is  a 
good  harbor,  which  affords  anchorage  throughout  the 
year,  within  four  or  five  miles  of  the  deposits.  Some 
of  the  Cebu  coal  fields  enjoy  similar  advantages.  The 
black  coals  can  in  most  cases  be  mined  free  from 
pyrites ;  they  are  firm  enough  for  transportation ;  can 
be  taken  out  at  reasonable  cost,  and  should  therefore 
be  able  to  entirely  take  the  place  of  the  imported 
article  in  the  home  market  and  supply  all  the  local 
demands  of  steamships. 

The  Commission  reports  that  "testimony  is  unani- 
mous to  the  fact  that  the  Philippine  coals  do  not 
clinker,  nor  do  they  soil  the  boiler  tubes  to  any 
such  extent  as  do  the  Japanese  and  Australian  coals. 
Some  of  them  have  been  given  practical  tests  in  steam- 
ers engaged  in  the  coasting  trade  of  the  Archipelago 
with  very  satisfactory  results  as  regards  their  steam- 
making  properties."* 


MANILA  OLD  AND  NEW. 


X. 

MANILA  OLD  AND  NEW. 

Tbe  Philippines  Twenty  Years  Hence — The  Legend  of 
Mariveles — Cavite — The  Pasig — Manila  Intramuros — The 
Cathedral — The  Old  Palace  of  the  Governor-General — 
The  Fortress  of  Santiago — Santiago's  Illustrious  Prison- 
ers— Old  Manila  Unsanitary,  like  most  Spanish  Cities 
— Bonondo  the  Business  Quarter — Costumes  of  the  Citi- 
zens— Various  Races  in  the  Metropolis — The  Suburban 
Residential  Sections — Cock-Fighting  the  National  Sport 
— The  Reformation  of  Manila — The  Commercial  Destiny 
of  Manila— Other  Ports  will  share  the  Fortunes  of  the 
Capital. 

In  the  olden  days  the  Spaniard  went  to  the  Phil- 
ippines by  way  of  Mexico,  and  sailed  from  Acapulco 
for  Manila  in  the  State  Nao.  The  cumbersome, 
broad-beamed  vessel,  with  its  four-storied  deck-house 
abaft,  its  polished  brass  carronada,  and  its  sails  set  to 
the  single  mast,  left  port  upon  its  perilous  voyage  with 
great  eclat.  Perhaps  it  carried  to  the  insular  col- 
ony a  governor-general  in  blissful  ignorance  of  the 
many  troubles  in  store  for  him.  Without  doubt  there 
were  on  board  more  than  one  frocked  member  of  the 
class  that  was  at  once  the  blessing  and  the  bane  of 
the  Spanish  Indies.  Neither  friar,  nor  governor, 
could  eclipse  the  splendor  of  the  ship's  commander, 
who  wore  a  gorgeous  uniform,  drew  a  princely  salary, 

[393] 


394  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

and  carried  the  title  of  "General"  with  stately  dig- 
nity. Fortunate  the  galleon  if  the  blessed  Virgin  of 
Antipolo  guarded  it  with  her  presence,  for  nine  times 
had  she  crossed  the  Pacific  and  never  once  failed  to 
bring  her  charge  safely  into  port. 

The  nao  was  freighted  with  stuffs  of  Spanish  manu- 
facture, and  its  commander's  cabin  contained  a  chest 
of  Mexican  dollars  amounting  to,  perhaps,  three  mil- 
lions with  which  to  pay  the  Real  Situado  and  re- 
imburse the  Philippine  merchants  for  their  ship- 
ments. 

As  the  voyage  neared  its  end,  a  sharp  lookout  would 
be  maintained  for  the  British  sea-hawks  to  whom 
many  a  fat  galleon  had  fallen  prey,  and  eager  eyes 
would  scan  the  promontories  of  the  Philippine  coast 
for  beacon  warnings  of  the  presence  of  the  dreaded 
enemy.  And  when  at  length  the  nao  sailed  into  the 
Bay  with  Spanish  sedateness,  there  was  great  rejoic- 
ing in  the  Capital.  It  was  a  jubilee  occasion,  and  all 
Manila  gave  itself  up  to  festivity.  Bells  rang  from 
their  towers,  bands  of  music  paraded  the  streets, 
buildings  were  bedecked  in  bunting,  officials  came 
forth  in  full  uniform,  and  the  people  donned  holiday 
dress.  In  all  the  churches  a  solemn  Te  Deum  was 
chanted  in  thankfulness  for  the  glad  event. 

THE  PHILIPPINES   TWENTY  YEARS   HENCE. 

Twenty  years  hence  the  American  traveler  bound 
for  the  Philippines  will  voyage  upon  a  turbine-driven 


THE  PHILIPPINES  TWENTY  YEARS  HENCE.    395 

ship,  one  of  many  vessels  converging  from  all  points 
of  the  compass  upon  the  Island  of  Luzon.  He  will 
land  at  some  bustling  port  on  the  Pacific  coast,  per- 
haps in  the  Gulf  of  Lagonoy,  thereby  saving  seven  or 
eight  hundred  miles  in  the  journey  from  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  railroad  will  carry  him  up  to  Manila 
through  a  country  abounding  in  the  fruits  of  the 
field,  past  busy  towns  and  flourishing  plantations. 
Everywhere  he  will  perceive  the  evidences  of  a  peo- 
ple awakening  to  their  opportunities  and  happy  in 
the  beginnings  of  a  vast  prosperity.  American  capi- 
tal and  American  enterprise  will  ere  then  have  made 
their  vivifying  effects  felt  in  the  land ;  iron  and  coal 
will  have  begun  their  magic  work;  the  steel  plough 
and  the  harvester  will  have  largely  displaced  the 
carabao  and  the  bolo;  the  are  which  now  returns  a 
picul  will  then  yield  three. 

Manila,  the  future  "Hub  of  the  Orient,"  will,  before 
twenty  years  have  passed,  be  one  of  the  most  fre- 
quented ports  in  the  East.  The  City  will  be  the 
best  lighted,  the  best  paved,  the  best  drained,  and  the 
best  governed  municipality  east  of  Suez  and  Panama 
— and  the  promise  of  all  these  things  is  already  in 
evidence. 

To-day  one  must  go  to  Manila  via  Yokohama  and 
Hongkong.  The  six  hundred  and  thirty  miles  from 
the  latter  port,  across  the  ever-restless  China  Sea,  are 
covered  in  a  small  steamer  of  the  coaster  type.  At 
the  entrance  to  the  Bay,  which  might  more  correctly 


396  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

be  termed  a  gulf,  the  vessel  is  still  thirty  miles  from 
the  City.  Upon  the  left  is  Mariveles.  A  signal  sta- 
tion will  soon  be  established  at  this  point,  and  here  in- 
coming ships  will  be  boarded  by  the  customs  officers, 
so  enabling  passengers  to  avoid  what  has  been  in 
the  past  a  vexatious  delay. 

THE  LEGEND  OF  MARIVELES. 

A  romantic  legend  attaches  to  Mariveles.  Some- 
time in  the  seventeenth  century,  so  the  story  runs, 
there  was  in  one  of  the  convents  of  Manila  a  young 
Spanish  girl  whose  name,  before  she  assumed  the  veil, 
had  been  Maria  Velez.  The  lovely  recluse  formed  a 
liaison  with  a  monk  and  they  decided  upon  a  des- 
perate plan  to  leave  the  islands.  Together,  the  girl 
disguised  in  a  friar's  frock  and  cowl,  they  fled  and 
reached  the  village  which  is  now  called  Mariveles,  in 
a  canoe.  Here  they  designed  to  lie  hidden  until  the 
galleon  bound  for  Mexico  passed.  In  the  meantime 
the  affair  had  created  great  excitement  in  Manila, 
where  a  hue  and  cry  was  raised,  but  without  avail, 
until  a  native  brought  news  of  the  whereabouts  of 
the  fugitives.  They  were  found  upon  the  open  shore 
in  a  pitiable  condition.  The  priest,  who  had  been 
compelled  to  battle  with  the  natives  for  the  possession 
of  his  companion,  was  at  the  point  of  extreme  ex- 
haustion, whilst  the  girl  bordered  upon  insanity  from 
fright  and  exposure.  They  were  carried  back  to  the 
City  and  effectually  separated  for  all  time.  The 


THE  PENINSULA  OF  CAV1TE.  397 

friar  was  assigned  to  a  remote  parish  among  wild 
tribes  and  the  nun  was  despatched  to  a  convent  in 
Mexico. 

Passing  Corregidor,  with  its  lighthouse  and  pic- 
turesque but  harmless  fort,  the  vessel  is  clear  of 
the  islets  that  beset  the  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  Manila, 
which  is  sufficiently  capacious  to  accommodate  all 
the  navies  of  the  world.  The  roadstead  has  been  sub- 
ject to  almost  the  full  force  of  the  monsoons,  but 
amongst  the  many  improvements  in  progress  is  the 
construction  of  an  ample  breakwater.  Four  millions 
are  to  be  expended  upon  Manila  harbor,  which  will 
have  a  mean  depth  of  thirty-five  feet  at  low  tide.  The 
system  of  docks  and  warehouses  when  completed  will 
surpass  anything  of  the  kind  in  Asia  or  America. 
These  combined  facilities  must  make  the  capital  of 
the  Philippines,  which,  according  to  La  Perouse,  oc- 
cupies "the  finest  commercial  site  of  any  city  in  the 
world,"  the  safest  and  most  convenient  port  in  the 
Orient. 

THE   PENINSULA  OF   CAVITE. 

Cavite,  on  its  little  "fish-hook"  peninsula,  comes 
into  view  before  Manila  is  clearly  discernible.  The 
projecting  land  upon  which  Cavite  stands  forms  a 
fine  harbor  that  probably  decided  the  selection  of  the 
place  for  a  naval  depot.  It  was  off  this  point  that 
Montojo's  ships  went  down,  or  out  of  action,  under 
the  fire  of  Dewey's  guns. 


398  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Cavite  contains  the  arsenal,  shipyards,  dry-docks, 
and  repair  shops  of  the  Government.  There  are  forts 
on  the  peninsula  commanding  every  approach  which, 
with  proper  armament,  will  be  an  important  part  of 
the  defenses  of  the  Capital. 

Manila  lies  low,  hardly  anywhere  more  than  three 
or  four  feet  above  high  water  mark,  and  it  has  no  lofty 
buildings,  so  that  it  breaks  upon  the  view  of  the 
passenger  on  shipboard  with  the  suddenness  of  a 
Dutch  port.  The  present  accommodation  will  not 
permit  of  large  vessels  approaching  much  nearer  than 
two  miles  from  shore,  and  there  used  to  be  a  great 
deal  of  tiresome  delay  and  difficulty  about  landing. 
Conditions  are  much  mitigated  since  our  people  have 
had  control,  and  it  will  not  be  long  before  ships  tie 
up  at  docks  and  land  their  passengers  from  gang- 
planks. 

The  traveler's  immediate  destination  will  doubtless 
be  Binondo,  or  one  of  the  residence  suburbs,  which 
he  may  reach  in  a  launch,  or  boat,  but  before  pro- 
ceeding to  a  description  of  modern  Manila  we  will 
take  a  cursory  view  of  the  Walled  City,  symbolical 
of  an  order  of  things  which  is  fast  passing  away. 

THE    PASIG    KIVEK. 

The  river  is  fairly  crowded  with  boats  of  all  de- 
scriptions, light  draft  steamers  and  launches,  out- 
rigged  bancas  and  dugout  canoes.  More  conspicu- 
ous than  these,  and  most  useful  of  all,  is  the  cargo 


MANILA  INTRAMUROS.  399 

j  with  its  cylindrical  bamboo  top.  The  casco  is 
at  once  a  freight  conveyance  and  a  dwelling.  Despite 
the  utter  dissimilarity  of  appearance,  one  is  reminded 
of  the  old-time  canal  barges  of  England.  There  are 
the  same  signs  of  permanent  occupation.  Children 
hanging  over  the  gunwale,  mothers  preparing  food 
in  the  bow  and  clothing  stretched  to  dry. 

These  cumbersome,  but  highly  useful  craft,  are 
propelled  by  poling  from  a  framework  footway  ex- 
tending along  each  side.  As  the  management  of  a 
casco  and  the  handling  of  its  cargo  require  the  services 
of  at  least  two  men,  the  boat  generally  houses  more 
than  one  family.  Thousands  of  these  river-folk,  in 
different  parts  of  the  islands  are  born,  live  and  die 
afloat.  It  is  a  quite  congenial  condition,  for  the 
Malay  is  by  heredity  a  navigator  and  lover  of  water, 
which  predilection  extends  to  its  personal  application 
and  seems  to  be  unfailingly  innate  with  these  people. 

MANILA    INTKAMUROS. 

Manila  is  remarkably  subject  to  seismic  dis- 
turbances, most  of  which  seem  to  have  their  center  in 
the  Taal  volcano,  barely  thirty  miles  distant.  On  an 
average,  shocks  are  felt  in  the  City  once  a  month, 
but  they  are  usually  very  slight,  and  do  no  damage. 
There  have  been,  however,  thirty-three  destructive 
earthquakes  since  the  Walled  City  was  founded.  The 
greater  proportion  (fourteen)  of  these  occurred  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  June  the  3d,  1863,  at  3.20 


400  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

p.  m.,  a  violent  shock  threw  down  the  Cathedral,  bury- 
ing a  number  of  worshipers  and  demolished  twenty- 
five  other  public  buildings,  besides  injuring  a  much 
greater  number.  In  many  places  the  ruins  still  lie 
untouched,  save  for  the  vegetation  which  has  over- 
grown them.  Portions  of  others  afford  quarters  for 
vagrant  natives,  wrho  share  them  with  bats  and 
monkeys. 

The  Spaniards  built  heavily,  and  this  applies  to 
their  residences  as  well  as  public  structures.  Thirty- 
inch  walls  are  common  in  houses,  whilst  from  ten  to 
'twenty  feet  of  solid  masonry  are  to  be  found  in 
churches  and  fortifications  about  old  Manila. 

It  is  not  at  all  certain  that  heavy  masonry  affords 
the  best  protection  against  earthquakes :  at  all  events, 
the  largest  buildings  appear  to  have  suffered  most  in 
these  visitations.  Good  brick  and  mortar  seem  to 
withstand  the  shock  very  well,  judging  from  the  fact 
that  the  tall  smokestack  of  the  Insular  Cold  Storage 
and  Ice  Plant  passed  through  an  earthquake  a  few 
years  ago  without  showing  any  mark  of  injury.  As 
to  residences,  light  structures,  such  as  prevail  in 
Japan,  should  be  the  least  liable  to  destruction  by 
these  convulsions  of  the  earth,  but  the  Manila  builder 
is  between  Scylla  and  Charybdis:  a  solid  building 
will  fall  to  the  shock  of  earthquake,  whilst  a  typhoon 
will  rip  a  light  one  to  pieces.  It  is  seldom  that 
the  terranean  disturbances  overturn  the  native  huts, 
but  a  cyclone  will  scatter  them  like  chaff. 


26 


[401] 


402  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Nothing  in  Manila  is  built  over  two  stories  in 
height,  so  that  public  edifices  have  not  generally  an 
imposing  aspect.  Nevertheless,  as  each  story  is  ex- 
tremely high,  the  buildings,  though  almost  invariably 
flat  or  low-roofed,  are  far  from  presenting  a  squat 
appearance.  The  Cathedral,  without  towers  or  up- 
per structures,  except  a  stunted  dome,  gains  a  certain 
beauty  from  the  simplicity  of  its  straight  lines  and 
something  of  stateliness  from  its  extensive  propor- 
tions. It  is  the  finest  and  most  ample  place  of  wor- 
ship in  Manila,  but  it  was  erected  since  1880,  when 
an  earthquake  destroyed  the  former  building,  the 
ruins  of  which,  including  a  partially-demolished  bel- 
fry tower,  with  some  of  the  bells  still  intact  in  their 
original  positions,  may  be  seen  adjoining  the  present 
Cathedral.  The  edifice  stands  upon  the  site  which 
has  been  thus  occupied  since  the  Archiepiscopate 
was  created  in  1595,  with  Domingo  Salazar  as  the 
first  appointee.  Salazar,  a  grand  old  man,  whose 
zeal  for  the  welfare  of  the  Colony  was  unbounded, 
made  the  long  and  arduous  journey  to  Spain  and 
back  when  he  was  verging  upon  his  eightieth  year 
for  the  purpose  of  laying  the  needs  of  his  bishopric 
before  the  King.  He  died  in  Manila  whilst  the 
Papal  Bull  authorizing  his  investiture  as  the  first 
Archbishop  was  crossing  the  seas. 

The  eighteenth  century  map  of  Manila  gives  the 
Cathedral  first  place,  and,  indeed,  it  represented 
politically  and  socially  the  first  power  of  the  Colony. 


THE  CATHEDRAL.  403 

At  the  time  of  the  most  direful  peril  to  the  Philip- 
pines, when  Li  Ma  Hung,  the  Chinese  corsair,  came 
near  to  possessing  himself  of  the  islands,  the  aid  of 
Saint  Andrew  was  particularly  invoked,  and  when 
the  danger  had  safely  passed  he  was  declared  to  be 
henceforth  the  patron  saint  of  Manila.  In  commem- 
oration of  the  happy  deliverance  the  Funcion  votive 
de  San  Andres  was  thereafter  celebrated  on  the  30th 
of  November  of  every  year,  when  all  Manila  attended 
High  Mass  at  the  Cathedral.  The  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities made  this  the  occasion  of  a  ceremony  de- 
signed to  indicate  the  supremacy  of  the  Church.  The 
Standard  of  Spain  was  spread  upon  the  pavement  of 
the  nave  and  the  Metropolitan  walked  over  it.  In 
recent  years  the  protests  of  the  Governor-General  led 
to  the  abandonment  of  this  practice  and  instead  of 
it  the  flag  was  thrice  lowered  before  the  altar. 

The  Cathedral  was  the  point  from  which  all  pro- 
cessions started  and  at  which  they  all  ended.  Manila 
delighted  in  her  numerous  holidays  and  the  proces- 
sions with  which  they  wound  up  at  night.  Along 
each  side  of  the  street  would  walk,  in  single  file,  men, 
women,  and  children,  each  bearing  a  lighted  candle, 
whilst  down  the  centre  would  come  bands  of  music 
preceding  groups  of  priests,  who  escorted  images  of 
the  Saviour,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  the  Saints,  borne 
upon  the  shoulders  of  perhaps  as  many  as  thirty 
men.  Some  of  these  images  were  ablaze  with  gems 
said  to  be  real,  and,  if  so,  of  enormous  value.  Such 


404  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

images  had  an  additional  guard  of  soldiers  with  fixed 
bayonets.  The  course  of  the  parade  was  marked  by 
the  explosion  of  bombs  and  rockets  at  intervals. 

THE  OLD  PALACE   OF  THE  GOVERNOR-GENERAL. 

Upon  the  western  side  of  the  Cathedral  square, 
which  was  in  some  sort  the  public  square  of  the  City, 
stands  what  was  the  Palace  of  the  Governor-General. 
The  present  Palace,  which,  like  the  Cathedral,  occu- 
pies a  site  that  has  been  devoted  to  the  same  purpose 
from  the  beginning  of  the  City,  dates  since  the  earth- 
quake of  1863,  but  the  residence  of  the  chief  executive 
was  in  the  modern  portion  of  Manila  for  several  years 
before  the  Spanish  evacuation.  The  Palace  is  a  large 
building,  with  spacious  apartments.  It  conforms  to 
the  general  rule  of  two  stories,  with  all  the  reception 
and  living  rooms  on  the  upper  floor.  A  broad  stair- 
case, flanked  on  either  side  by  a  carved  presentment 
of  the  Lion  of  Castile,  gives  ascent  to  a  landing, 
upon  which  stands  a  life-size  marble  statue  of  Magel- 
lan. Upon  the  right  and  left  hand  of  the  statue 
are  lofty  entrances  to  a  splendid  hall  one  hundred  feet 
long  and  half  as  wide.  With  its  polished  parquetry 
floor  a  more  delightful  dance-room  could  not  be 
imagined,  and  doubtless  it  has  often  been  given  over 
to  that  favorite  amusement  of  the  Spaniards.  The 
walls  are  hung  with  full-size  paintings  of  Spanish 
celebrities,  recalling  many  a  dark  deed  and  many  a 
bright  achievement.  Returning  to  the  landing,  a 


PALACE  OF  THE  GOVERNOR-GENERAL.         405 

stairway  upon  each  side  affords  ascent  to  the  main 
floor.  The  principal  apartment  is  the  Council  Cham- 
ber, furnished  with  a  large  carved  table  and  heavy 
chairs  bearing  the  Royal  Arms.  Many  a  strange  and 
stormy  scene  was  enacted  around  this  table  during 
the  incessant  conflict  of  Church  and  State.  The  win- 
dows give  upon  the  square,  and  it  may  have  been  from 
a  similar  vantage  point  in  a  former  building  that 
stout  old  Bustamente  watched  the  approach  of  the 
mob  that  did  him  to  death. 

There  are  no  entire  buildings  in  Manila  that  can 
boast  of  very  great  antiquity,  the  Church  of  San 
Augustine  being  probably  the  oldest.  The  City  has 
been  so  often  subjected  to  destructive  forces  that  what 
structures  escaped  one,  fell  to  another.  The  general 
aspect  is  one  of  old  age  due  to  the  common  practice 
of  preserving  old  styles  and  employing  old  material 
in  reconstruction.  In  many  cases  surviving  portions 
of  a  former  structure  have  been  included  in  its  suc- 
cessor. One  constantly  comes  across  quaint  corners 
and  curious  nooks  that  have  all  the  appearance  of 
being  many  hundred  years  old,  and,  of  course,  there 
are  bits  of  architecture  here  and  there  that  date  back 
to  the  sixteenth  century.  Several  of  the  ecclesiastical 
buildings  are  of  the  type  of  mission  architecture  char- 
acteristic of  similar  Spanish  edifices  in  Mexico  and 
California.  The  church  of  San  Juan  del  Monte, 
which  antedates  most  of  those  in  Manila  is  a  striking 
example  of  this  type. 


406  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

In  the  acute  angle  of  the  walls,  just  at  the  point 
where  the  River  merges  into  the  Bay,  is  the  Fortress 
of  Santiago,  which  for  many  years  acted  as  an 
efficient  watchdog  over  the  sleepy  City  lying  behind 
it.  More  than  once  it  has  been  the  last  refuge  of 
the  Spaniards,  when  enemies  have  gained  within  the 
walls.  In  1574 — but  this  was  before  the  Walled 
City  was  built — the  gallant  Salcedo  at  this  point  made 
his  final  stand  against  Li  Ma  Hung's  barbarian  band. 

Many  a  victim  of  injustice  and  revenge  has  pined 
within  the  dark,  damp,  and  noisome  dungeons  of  San- 
tiago. Its  walls  have  often  echoed  to  the  shrieks  of 
tortured  prisoners.  Some  have  found  relief  in  death, 
others  at  the  garrote  or  from  the  bullets  of  Spanish 
soldiers.  In  times  of  disturbance  the  capacity  of 
the  place  has  been  taxed  to  the  utmost,  and  men  have 
been  crowded  into  the  cells,  literally  as  cattle  are 
massed  in  a  freight  car,  with  the  result  that  the  weak- 
est saved  the  courts  all  further  consideration  of  their 
cases  by  dying  there  and  then. 

During  the  Tagalog  Rebellion,  the  dungeons  were 
always  packed  full.  Into  some  of  them  the  river 
trickled  at  high  tide  so  that  twice  a  day  the  unfor- 
tunate prisoners  stood  in  water  up  to  their  waists.  A 
fearful  tragedy  was  caused  by  an  officer  who,  through 
inadvertence  or  design,  caused  the  sole  source  of 
ventilation  to  be  closed.  The  next  day  eighty  corpses 
were  removed  from  the  place,  but  life  was  cheap  and 
prison  room  scarce,  and  the  affair  does  not  appear  to 


SANTIAGO'S  ILLUSTRIOUS  PRISONERS.         407 

have  disturbed  the  equanimity  of  the  authorities  in 
the  slightest  degree. 

SANTIAGO'S  ILLUSTEIOTTS  PEISONEES. 

The  long  roll  of  prisoners  in  the  Fortress  of  San- 
tiago includes  both  sexes  and  the  representatives  of 
all  classes  and  of  every  rank  from  the  humble  fisher- 
man to  the  proud  archbishop.  Not  the  least  sad  of 
the  stories  connected  with  it  relate  to  men  of  high  de- 
gree, for,  in  the  kaleidoscopic  changes  of  political 
affairs  in  the  Philippines  no  man  knew  where  the 
morrow  might  find  him. 

Jose  Torralba,  who  had  served  as  acting-Governor 
for  a  term  of  two  years,  was  confined  in  the  Fortress 
on  a  charge  of  embezzling  the  public  funds.  The 
investigation  and  trial  moved  with  the  customary 
Spanish  tardiness,  and  seventeen  years  elapsed  before 
sentence  was  finally  pronounced.  It  included  ban- 
ishment, but,  as  the  old  man  was  then  verging  upon 
the  grave,  he  was  permitted  to  remain  and  beg  his 
bread  in  the  City  over  which  he  had  ruled.  Torralba 
died  in  1736  in  the  Hospitals  of  San  Juan  de  Dios, 
over  against  the  eastern  ramparts. 

Hurtado  de  Corcuera,  who  governed  from  1635 
to  1644,  suffered  five  years'  confinement  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  ecclesiastics.  In  the  end,  however,  he 
was  fortunate  enough  to  regain  the  royal  favor  and 
to  receive  the  governorship  of  the  Canaries. 

Not  so  happily  did  the  quarrel  of  another  governor 


408  THE  PHILIPPINES 

with  the  Church  terminate.  Diego  Salcedo  was  seized 
by  the  agents  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  Palace  and 
thrown  into  a  dungeon  in  the  Fortress,  where  for 
many  years  he  suffered  cruel  treatment.  Death  came 
as  a  welcome  release  on  board  a  galleon  which  was 
bearing  him  a  prisoner  to  Mexico. 

In  1751  Sultan  Muhammad  Ali  Mudin  of  Sulu, 
his  brother,  sister,  and  four  daughters,  together  with 
about  two  hundred  retainers,  who  had  mistakenly  con- 
fided in  the  honor  of  the  Spanish  authorities,  were 
imprisoned  in  Santiago,  and  there  Prince  Asin,  the 
Sultan's  brother,  died. 

The  citadel  is  the  oldest  portion  of  Manila.  It  is 
said  that  parts  of  it  date  from  the  foundation  of 
the  City.  Its  walls  are  enormously  thick  and,  until 
recent  years,  were  able  to  defy  the  heaviest  artillery 
that  could  be  brought  against  them.  The  old  Fort 
has  seen  the  City  swept  by  cyclones,  shaken  by  earth- 
quakes, devoured  by  fire,  sacked  by  invaders,  in  the 
grip  of  pestilence,  and,  finally,  in  the  possession  of 
a  foreign  people.  Strangest  fortune  of  all,  its  subter- 
ranean dungeons  have  been  condemned  to  desuetude. 

OLD  MANILA  UNSANITARY,  LIKE  MOST  SPANISH  CITIES. 

Manila  Intramuros  is  occupied  mainly  by  the  old 
government  buildings  and  those  belonging  to  the 
monastic  orders.  In  the  shadows  of  these,  huddle 
miserable  native  hovels  in  dense  disorder.  The 
streets,  laid  out  at  right  angles,  are  wide  enough  for 


OLD  MANILA.  409 

the  requirements  of  the  moderate  traffic,  but  the 
sidewalks,  overhung  by  the  upper  stories  of  the 
houses,  are  inconveniently  narrow. 

Old  Manila  has  always  been  a  fearfully  unsanitary 
place.  It  has  never  had  any  kind  of  sewerage  system. 
A  description  of  the  private  arrangements  of  resi- 
dences is  not  fit  to  print.  The  drainage  of  houses 
passed  into  the  river,  the  streets,  and  the  moat.  The 
moat  long  since  became  such  a  sink  of  fetid  refuse 
that  it  was  rightfully  decided  that  to  disturb  it  would 
be  to  court  an  outbreak  of  pestilence.  The  American 
administration  is  disposing  of  this  long-standing 
menace  to  health  by  filling  it  up  and  converting  it 
into  flower  beds. 

The  walls  of  the  City,  which  were  erected  in  the 
time  of  Governor  Dasmarinas,  are  more  than  two 
miles  in  extent.  Along  the  ramparts  are  mediaeval 
cannon,  that  long  since  ceased  to  be  of  any  value, 
save  as  curiosities.  There  are  eight  gates  with  draw- 
bridges and  portcullises.  Until  1854  the  gates  were 
closed  at  eleven  o'clock  every  night,  when  the  clumsy 
drawbridges  were  raised. 

Manila  Intramuros  presents  the  most  perfect  type 
extant  of  the  old-time  Walled  City.  The  walls  long 
ago  ceased  to  serve  any  useful  purpose,  whilst  they 
have  deprived  the  inhabitants  of  much-needed  fresh 
air.  However,  perhaps  antiquarian  motives  should 
be  sufficiently  strong  to  preserve  these  old  relics  of 
Spanish  sovereignty,  which  were  constructed  in  1590 


410  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

upon  the  site  selected  by  Lopez  de  Legaspi.  There 
is  the  most  striking  contrast  between  old  and  new 
Manila.  The  former  suggests  a  drowsy  and  decrepit 
grandsire  persisting  in  the  garb  and  habits  of  hig 
youth.  It  has  no  business,  aside  from  a  few  retail 
shops;  no  places  of  amusement,  comparatively  few 
residences,  and  nothing  of  the  life  and  bustle  of  the 
modern  City. 

BINONDO,   THE   BUSINESS    QUARTER. 

Binondo,  which  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pasig, 
exactly  opposite  the  Walled  City,  is  the  business  quar- 
ter. Here  the  streets  are  alive  with  hurrying  vehicles 
and  more  leisurely  humanity.  The  chief  business 
street  is  the  Escolta,  whose  shops  compare  favorably 
with  those  of  other  Eastern  cities.  The  majority  of 
owners  are  Europeans,  Americans,  or  mestizos.  The 
Chinese  shops,  which  are  rarely  patronized  by  the 
white  population,  are  in  the  Rosario.  They  are 
small,  insignificant-looking  places,  but  many  of  the 
proprietors  are  said  to  be  extremely  wealthy. 

During  the  old  regime  what  signs  of  enterprise 
could  be  seen  in  Manila  were  limited  to  this  side  of 
the  river.  The  Spanish  official,  whose  stay  was  uncer- 
tain, and  seldom  extended  over  more  than  a  few 
years,  displayed  no  interest  in  improvements,  and 
hardly  an  ordinary  regard  for  his  own  comfort.  Hia 
sole  idea  was  to  accumulate  as  much  money  as  possi- 
ble and  to  return  to  the  "peninsula."  The  foreign 


BINONDO,  THE  BUSINESS  QUARTER.          411 

merchants,  on  the  other  hand,  many  of  whom  have 
been  *in  the  country  for  from  ten  to  twenty  years, 
encourage  measures  for  public  benefit  and  the  im- 
provement of  the  City,  build  for  themselves  handsome 
houses  and  beautify  their  surroundings. 

Cigar-making  is  the  principal  manufacturing  in- 
dustry of  the  City.  Some  of  the  factories  are  very 
large  and  employ  two  thousand  and  more  workers. 
There  are  in  Manila  twenty  thousand  cigarmakers, 
ninety  per  cent,  of  whom  are  women  and  girls,  and 
a  large  proportion  of  these  mestizas  of  Chinese 
extraction. 

The  public  vehicles  are  of  three  classes.  The  con- 
veyance patronized  by  the  whites,  and  the  well-to-do 
mestizos  is  the  carruage,  on  the  Victoria  pattern  and 
drawn  by  two  ponies.  The  quells  is  a  small,  square 
box-like  vehicle  on  two  wheels  with  seats  inside  for 
four  passengers.  It  does  not  require  much  room, 
and  has  a  commendable  facility  for  dodging  through 
crowded  thoroughfares.  The  caromata  is  the  native 
conveyance.  It  is  merely  a  frame  with  a  low  rail 
round  it  and  board  seats  along  the  sides,  but  its  car- 
rying capacity  is  only  limited  by  its  superficial 
area.  The  driver  sits  upon  the  forward  edge,  or 
squats  inside,  with  his  fares. 

Before  the  American  occupation  a  one-horse  tram- 
way, with  cars  of  the  "bobtail"  variety,  was  the  sole 
means  of  "rapid"  transportation  through  the  most 
frequented  sections.  An  up-to-date  electric  street 


412  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

railway  has  taken  its  place  and  bids  fair  to  put  most 
of  the  hack-drivers  out  of  business. 

COSTUMES  OF  THE   CITIZENS. 

The  whites  wear  the  usual  costume  of  the  tropics, 
consisting  of  a  suit  of  white  duck,  or  linen,  with 
jacket  buttoning  to  the  throat  and  a  pith  helmet  or 
Terai  hat. 

Some  natives,  and  many  mestizos,  dress  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  but  their  garb  in  general  is  limited 
to  a  pair  of  trousers,  often  rolled  up  to  the  knees,  and 
a  shirt  tout  expose.  A  derby  hat  is  a  common 
addition. 

The  mestizo,,  and  better  class  of  native  women, 
affect  a  rather  stiff,  but  not  altogether  unbecoming,  at- 
tire. Over  a  chemise  is  worn  a  thin  and  transparent 
camisa,  open  at  the  neck  and  with  voluminous  sleeves, 
flowing  loose  from  the  shoulders.  Over  this  a  stiff 
kerchief  is  fastened.  The  skirt  is  usually  colored  and 
patterned,  with  a  long  train.  On  the  street  the  tapis, 
a  piece  of  dark  glossy  cloth,  is  wrapped  around  the 
limbs  from  the  waist  to  the  knees.  The  materials 
are  more  or  less  expensive,  pina  being  used  by  those 
who  can  afford  it.  Upon  the  feet  slippers  are  worn. 
The  hair  is  drawn  back  from  the  forehead  and  knotted 
Japanese  fashion,  or  allowed  to  fall  loose.  It  is 
always  well  kept  and  generally  very  long  and  beau- 
tiful. 

The  native  children  are  almost  invariably  bare- 


[413] 


414  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

legged  and  bareheaded,  with  the  occasional  exception 
of  some  enterprising  urchin  who  has  managed  to 
acquire  the  cast-off  headgear  of  a  European  and 
wears  it  with  uncomfortable  pride.  The  boys  wear 
short  white  cotton  breeches  and  a  shirt  of  the  same 
material.  The  tails  of  the  Filipino  shirt  are  always 
left  free  to  the  breeze.  The  girls  have  long  skirts, 
knot  their  hair,  and  look  like  their  mothers  in 
miniature. 

The  Chinaman  adheres  to  the  costume  of  his  native 
land,  but  his  women — and  he  may  have  one  or  more 
native  concubines  in  addition  to  a  wife  of  his  race — 
usually  adopt  the  Filipino  dress.  The  Chinaman  is 
almost  invariably  a  good  father  to  his  half-breed 
children.  They  are  well  taken  care  of,  are  initiated 
into  the  father's  business,  or  taught  some  other,  and 
both  girls  and  boys,  with  few  exceptions,  get  along 
comfortably  in  after  life. 

VARIOUS  RACES  IN  THE  METROPOLIS. 

By  far  the  majority  of  Chinese  in  Manila  are 
coolies,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  they  are  the  most 
hard-working  class  in  the  community.  The  mechan- 
ical industries  are  mainly  in  the  hands  of  these 
remarkably  adaptable  people,  who  can  apply  them- 
selves to  any  work,  however  unaccustomed,  and  do 
it  remarkably  well.  It  is  questionable  whether  any 
people  in  the  world  can  compete  with  the  Mongol 
in  manual  labor,  and  the  Filipino  is  certainly  no 


VARIOUS  RACES  IN  THE  METROPOLIS.         415 

match  for  him.  The  Chinaman  is  capable  of  working 
sixteen  hours  in  the  day  continuously,  and  his  intelli- 
gence is  of  a  higher  order  than  is  generally  suspected. 
But  for  the  repressive  measures  that  have  always  been 
in  force  in  the  Philippines  the  Chinese  would  have 
practically  owned  the  country  years  ago. 

The  Spanish  half-breeds  are  a  numerous  and  influ- 
ential class.  They  are  the  intellectual  superiors  of 
the  full-blooded  natives,  and  have  the  advantage  of 
them  in  the  matter  of  education.  Many  of  these 
mestizos  are  well-to-do  and  some  of  them  wealthy. 
When  their  circumstances  will  permit  they  are  accus- 
tomed to  send  their  sons  to  college  in  Europe,  where 
they  almost  invariably  prove  apt  pupils. 

The  mestizos  act  as  middlemen  between  the  plant- 
ers and  the  European  representatives  of  the  export 
houses,  and  in  this  capacity  accumulate  a  great  deal 
of  money.  Upon  them  the  larger  cultivators  depend 
for  the  capital  with  which  to  carry  on  their  operations. 
The  planter  always  pays  an  exorbitant  rate  for  his 
loans,  sometimes  as  much  as  fifty  per  cent. 

These  half-breeds,  like  all  Eurasians,  occupy  an 
equivocal  position  in  the  community.  They  are  con- 
stantly striving  to  disassociate  themselves  from  their 
native  connections  and  to  secure  the  consideration 
enjoyed  by  the  superior  race.  Everywhere  in  the 
East  the  Eurasian  displays  the  same  petty  traits  of 
sycophancy,  querulous  discontent,  disingenuousness, 
and  inordinate  conceit.  If  this  element  does  not 


416  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

prove  troublesome  to  the  American  administration  it 
will  only  be  because  the  recognition  accorded  to  them 
is  flattering  to  their  self-esteem  and  because  of  a 
realization  that  under  a  native  government  their  lot 
would  be  a  less  happy  one. 

THE   SUBURBAN   RESIDENTIAL   SECTIONS. 

The  white  population  live  for  the  most  part  in 
the  attractive  sections  of  Ermita  and  Malate,  along 
the  sea-front,  south  of  the  Walled  City,  and  in  San 
Miguel  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  River.  The 
last-named  suburb,  which  is  reached  by  the  Ayala 
Bridge,  contains  several  very  handsome  houses  stand- 
ing in  attractive  gardens.  The  lower  of  the  two 
stories  of  residences  is  much  more  solidly  constructed 
than  the  upper.  All  the  living  rooms  are  above,  the 
ground  floor  being  given  over  to  servants'  quarters, 
store-rooms,  and  similar  purposes.  The  outer  walls 
of  the  second  story  are  fitted  with  sliding  frames, 
in  which  are  set  small  squares  of  translucent  oyster 
shell,  the  common  substitute  for  glass  in  Manila. 
This  arrangement  permits  of  the  interior  of  the  house 
being  thrown  wide  open  to  the  air  in  the  evening. 
Plaster  is  dispensed  with  for  the  same  reason  that 
prohibits  the  use  of  glass.  The  walls  are  white- 
washed and  the  ceiling  is  of  canvas.  Hardwood  is 
employed  for  beams,  posts,  floors,  and  the  rest,  and 
carpets  and  upholstery  are  conspicuous  by  their 
absence. 


SUBURBAN  RESIDENTIAL  SECTIONS.  417 

Life  in  Manila  is  very  much  like  that  in  an  East 
Indian  city,  Calcutta,  for  instance.  The  business  of 
the  day  over,  the  entire  white  population  repairs  to 
the  Luneta,  which  is  to  Manila  what  the  Esplanade 
is  to  Calcutta,  or  the  Marina  to  Madras.  Upon  an 
oval  grass  promenade  the  band  plays  every  evening, 
whilst  carriages  circle  round  in  one  direction,  the 
Governor-General  and  Archbishop  only,  having  been 
allowed  to  drive  in  the  other.  Everyone  owns  a  pri- 
vate Victoria  or  barouche,  to  which  two  of  the  country 
horses  are  driven.  Many  of  the  turnouts  with  their 
liveried  cocheros  are  quite  smart. 

There  are  few  public  amusements,  and  those  not 
of  a  very  high  order.  There  is  plenty  of  good  music. 
The  Filipino  has  his  full  share  of  the  universal 
Malay  taste  in  this  direction,  but  his  talent  rarely 
rises  above  mediocre.  However,  native  bands  and 
orchestras  give  excellent  renderings  of  marches  and 
dance  music,  which  generally  answer  all  the  demands 
of  their  audiences. 

Bull-fights  and  combats  betwreen  various  "wild" 
beasts  used  to  be  given,  but  they  were  generally 
fiascos  on  account  of  the  lack  of  combative  qualities 
displayed  by  the  brutes  engaged  in  them.  There  is 
a  jockey  club  in  the  City,  which  holds  meetings 
twice  a  year,  members  only  being  permitted  to  ride. 

The  Philippine  "pony"  is  in  reality  an  undersized 
horse,  for  in  no  respect,  but  its  height,  does  it  resem- 
ble the  pony  breed.  These  animals  are  said  to  be 

27 


418  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

derived  from  Mexican  horses,  introduced  by  the 
Spaniards  in  the  sixteenth  century.  They  are  good- 
looking  beasts,  remarkably  strong,  and,  with  training, 
capable  of  developing  great  speed.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  mile  has  been  done  in  two  minutes  and  ten  sec- 
onds on  the  Santa  Mesa  race-course  by  a  native  pony 
carrying  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

COCK-FIGHTING    THE    NATIONAL,    SPORT. 

The  national  sport  of  the  Filipinos  is  cock-fighting. 
There  are  in  and  about  Manila  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred buildings  containing  cockpits,  some  of  them 
capable  of  holding  more  than  five  thousand  people, 
and  every  barrio  in  the  provinces  has  its  arena. 

Aside  from  the  sport,  cock-fighting  affords  a  con- 
venient medium  for  gratifying  the  Filipino  passion 
for  gambling.  Every  native  owns  a  bird,  which  he 
carries  about  with  him  tucked  under  his  arm  or 
perched  upon  his  shoulder.  It  is  no  uncommon 
thing  for  two  men  meeting,  thus  provided  for  a  fight, 
to  squat  in  the  roadway  and  set  their  champions  at 
each  other. 

This  pastime  was  under  government  regulation. 
Sundays  and  feast  days,  and  in  Manila  Thursdays 
besides,  were  the  legalized  occasions  for  gallinacean 
combats.  At  these  times  every  native  who  can  com- 
mand the  price  of  admission  betakes  him  to  the  near- 
est cockpit,  and  if  he  has  the  wherewithal  to  make  a 
wager  he  is  a  happy  man.  The  licenses  for  conduct- 


COCK-FIGHTING  THE  NATIONAL  SPORT.        419 

ing  cock-fights  produced  a  considerable  revenue  to 
the  Spanish  Government,  which  derived  income  from 
various  other  forms  of  gambling.  The  privilege  for 
a  certain  section  was  put  up  to  the  highest  bidder, 
who  had  the  right  to  prevent  any  one  else  from  engag- 
ing in  the  business  within  the  limits  of  the  district 
assigned  to  him. 

The  building  containing  the  pit  is  surrounded  by  a 
high  wall  or  fence,  forming  a  courtyard  in  which 
the  birds  are  kept  awaiting  their  turns  to  fight. 
Within,  the  arena  is  surrounded  by  circular  tiers  of 
seats.  The  owners  of  the  contending  cocks  bring 
them  into  the  ring  and  display  them,  each  armed  with 
a  single  long  steel  spur  sharpened  to  a  razor-edge. 
Whilst  the  birds  are  thus  being  subjected  to  the 
inspection  and  criticism  of  the  spectators  bookmakers 
are  circulating  about  taking  bets.  Although  the  in- 
dividual wagers  seldom  exceed  a  few  dollars,  large 
sums  in  the  aggregate  frequently  change  hands  on 
the  results  of  these  flukey  fights. 

The  contest  is  usually  over  in  two  or  three  min- 
utes, for  one  or  other  of  the  birds  is  likely  to  be 
quickly  killed  or  disabled,  or  to  turn  tail,  which  is 
recognized  as  the  most  ignominious  defeat.  During 
the  set-to  the  spectators  maintain  the  utmost  silence 
save  for  muttered  exclamations  at  some  critical  mo- 
ment. Their  craned  necks  and  tense  expression  pro- 
claim the  keen  excitement,  to  which  they  give  vent 
in  shouts  when  a  decision  is  announced.  As  bets 


420  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

are  settled  immediately  after  each  event  and  all  the 
currency  is  coin,  the  hubbub  at  the  termination  of 
a  bout  is  pleasingly  toned  down  by  the  musical  jingle 
of  money. 

Chance  seems  to  be  by  far  the  most  important 
factor  in  these  cock-fights,  although  that  opinion  is 
•not  generally  entertained  by  the  natives.  The  first 
blow,  if  it  happens  to  fall  on  the  head  or  neck,  is 
calculated  to  place  the  recipient  Jiors  de  combat.  Of 
course  a  quick  and  plucky  game  fowl  is  likely  to  beat 
an  opponent  that  lacks  these  qualities,  but  luck  on  the 
other  side  may  easily  bring  about  a  contrary  result. 
There  is  no  denying  that  the  Filipino  loves  his  game- 
cock, but  perhaps  it  is  exaggeration  to  assert,  as  has 
often  been  done,  that  it  holds  the  first  place  in  his 
affections,  and  that  in  case  of  his  dwelling  taking  fire 
he  will  convey  his  prized  bird  to  a  place  of  safety  be- 
fore looking  after  his  wife  and  children. 

THE  REFORMATION  OF  MANILA. 

Manila  is  rapidly  undergoing  transformation.  In- 
tramuros  defies  any  great  changes  in  its  condition, 
and,  beyond  relieving  its  unsanitary  state,  perhaps  lit- 
tle can  be  done  to  it,  but  the  modern  City  is  in  course 
of  complete  reformation.  The  traveler  experiences 
it  before  he  has  cleared  the  custom  house,  and  evi- 
dences of  it  present  themselves  at  every  turn  in  the 
streets. 

During  1904  nearly  four  millions  were  expended 


THE  REFORMATION  OF  MANILA.  421 

in  local  improvements  by  the  Government,  not  to 
mention  the  large  sums  invested  by  corporations  in 
enterprises  of  public  utility.  Twenty-five  miles  of 
streets  have  been  widened  and  paved,  macadamized 
roads  have  been  laid  to  all  the  suburbs.  Thirty-five 
miles  of  electric  railroad  are  in  operation,  and  ten 
more  will  shortly  be  added.  Many  handsome  public 
buildings  have  been  erected,  and  others  are  in  process 
of  construction.  Amongst  these  are  a  number  of 
model  school-houses,  the  first  of  the  kind  to  be  erected 
in  the  East.  A  special  commission  of  American 
architects  visited  the  Philippines  in  the  Spring  of 
1905  for  the  purpose  of  planning  a  system  of  parks, 
boulevards,  and  government  edifices  which,  when 
completed,  will  make  Manila  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
cities  in  the  world.* 

An  extensive  system  of  sewerage,  sufficient  for 
double  the  present  population  of  two  hundred  and 
tAventy  thousand,  is  now  being  laid  at  an  expense  of 
over  three  million  dollars.  The  accumulated  filth 
of  centuries  has  been  removed,  and  the  streets  are 


*  The  Commission,  which  was  composed  of  Messrs.  D.  H. 
Burnham  and  Peirce  Anderson,  also  planned  the  proposed 
city  of  Baguio,  in  the  mountains  of  Benguet.  It  is  very 
much  regretted  that  the  drawings  of  these  plans,  for  which 
the  writer  is  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Burnham,  could 
not  be  reproduced  without  a  loss  of  detail,  which  would 
have  marred  the  effect.  The  portion  of  the  plan  of  Manila 
showing  the  improvements  on  the  water  front  has  been 
redrawn. 


422  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

now  cleaned  with  daily  regularity.  The  result  of 
these  measures  of  sanitation  is  already  seen  in  the 
recorded  bill  of  health  of  Manila  which  compares 
favorably  with  that  of  large  cities  the  world  over, 
and  is  better  than  that  of  large  centres  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Asia.  Crematories  for  the  destruction  of 
garbage  are  in  operation,  and  the  water  supply  is 
being  enlarged  and  improved. 

Manila's  fire  department  is  the  wonder  of  the 
Orient.  Even  the  Japanese,  who  have  for  years  con- 
sidered that  they  had  nothing  to  learn  in  their  own 
quarter  of  the  globe,  send  their  fire  officials  over  to 
Manila  to  study  the  system.  Formerly  the  City  was  at 
the  mercy  of  a  few  antiquated  hand  engines,  manned 
by.  natives  and  captained  by  an  officer  without  any 
experience.  The  Insular  Government  secured  the 
services  of  Chief  Bonner,  of  New  York,  and  fur- 
nished him  liberally  with  the  most  modern  equip- 
ment. Now  the  alarm  of  a  fire  in  Manila  is  responded 
to  with  the  snap  and  vim  customary  in  an  American 
city. 

Manila  presents  the  unique  spectacle  of  white 
men  working  with  unimpaired  energy  in  the  tropics 
to  convert  a  sloth-ridden  city  into  a  model  for  all 
the  governments  of  the  East. 

THE   COMMERCIAL  DESTINY  OF   MANILA. 

These  efforts,  tending  to  promote  the  health,  edu- 
cation and  material  betterment  of  the  people,  are  not 


COMMERCIAL  DESTINY  OF  MANILA.  423 

inconsistent  with  the  view  that  in  its  commercial  pos- 
sibilities lies  the  chief  importance  of  the  Archipelago. 
Indeed,  no  factor  is  more  surely  calculated  to  further 
the  humanitarian  projects  of  the  administration  than 
the  development  of  internal  industries  and  the  expan- 
sion of  the  trade  of  the  islands.  Manila  occupies  a 
commanding  position  with  reference  to  the  traffic  of 
the  mainland  of  Asia,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and 
the  islands  of  Indonesia.  With  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  the  trade  route  between  the  Atlantic 
ports  of  America  and  Oriental  points  will  be  entirely 
changed  and  much  of  the  freight  which  is  now  borne 
from  Europe  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  and  the 
Cape  to  the  same  destinations  may  be  expected  to  take 
the  Pacific  course,  not  solely  from  motives  of  econ- 
omy, but  also  because  the  present  route  through  the 
Indian  Ocean,  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  and  the  China 
Sea,  entails  great  difficulties  and  dangers  of  naviga- 
tion at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  Under  such  con- 
ditions much,  if  not  most,  of  the  collecting  and  dis- 
tributing trade  of  Hongkong  would  naturally  accrue 
to  Manila,  which  would  then  lie  in  the  main  route 
of  Eurasian  traffic. 

Within  easy  reach  of  the  Philippines  is  more  than 
half  of  the  people  of  the  globe.  China  has  a  popula- 
tion of  400,000,000;  the  East  Indies,  including  the 
possessions  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Holland, 
approximate  350,000,000;  Japan  has  42,000,000; 
Australasia,  5,000,000;  Siam,  5,000,000,  and  the 


424  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

Straits  Settlements,  600,000,  a  total  in  excess  of 
800,000,000. 

A  great  number  of  these  people  are  not  at  present 
within  the  zones  of  the  world's  traffic,  but  large 
areas,  formerly  remote,  are  being  constantly  brought 
into  trade  relations  with  other  countries  by  the  open- 
ing up  of  systems  of  transportation.  This  applies 
with  force  to  China,  whose  vast  inland  territory  has 
been  tapped  in  various  directions  by  new  railroads 
during  recent  years,  whilst  projects  for  extensions, 
involving  several  thousand  miles,  are  either  on  foot, 
or  under  consideration.  China  is  in  process  of  com- 
mercial regeneration  and  her  closer  relations  with 
Japan  will  surely  give  a  great  impetus  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  country. 

China  was  the  first  customer  of  the  Philippines, 
and  has  always  been  one  of  the  best.  She  can  already 
use  more  of  the  products  of  the  Archipelago  than  she 
is  receiving,  and,  with  the  increase  of  her  necessities, 
she  will  find  no  more  convenient  or  economical  market 
in  which  to  buy  many  of  her  staple  commodities. 
Her  capacity  for  the  consumption  of  Philippine  lum- 
ber will  doubtless  continue  to  exceed  the  ability  to 
meet  it.  Her  increasing  demand  for  sugar  will  find 
a  response  from  the  islands.  She  will  need  coal  and 
Manila  hemp  as  her  industries  develop  and,  in  a  few 
years,  it  is  probable  that  the  Philippines  will  be  in 
a  position  to  supply  her  with  considerable  quantities 
of  dress-stuffs  and  yarns.  On  the  other  hand,  the 


426  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

population  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  as  they  convert 
ever-increasing  areas  of  paddy-land  to  more  profit- 
able uses,  will  look  to  China  for  greater  quantities 
of  rice. 

The  commerce,  export  and  import,  exclusive  of 
bullion,  of  the  countries  neighboring  the  Philippines, 
exceeds  two  thousand  million  dollars  a  year,  about 
equally  divided  between  outsend  and  intake.  Next  to 
Great  Britain,  the  United  States  already  has  the 
largest  part  of  this  commerce. 

OTHEK    POETS    WILL    SHARE    THE    FORTUNES    OF    THE 
CAPITAL. 

The  problem  confronting  the  islands  is  how  to  de- 
velop their  resources  so  as  to  be  able  to  secure  a  great 
share  of  this  trade.  There  are  ready  markets  near 
at  hand,  and  a  constant  demand  in  these  markets 
for  many  million  dollars  worth  of  raw  and  manufac- 
tured goods  that  might  be  produced  in  the  Archi- 
pelago under  conditions  that  would  enable  its  shippers 
successfully  to  meet  any  competition.  There  will 
never  be  lack  of  customers  for  the  produce  when  it  is 
put  upon  the  market.  The  economic  principles  in- 
volved in  the  situation  are  so  pronouncedly  in  favor 
of  the  growth  of  the  Philippines  into  one  of  the 
richest  industrial  territories  in  the  East  that  such  a 
consummation  is  only  a  matter  of  time. 

The  development  of  other  ports  will  be  coincident 
with  the  commercial  expansion  of  Manila.  Iloilo 


FORTUNES  OF  THE  CAPITAL.  427 

is  rapidly  rising  to  the  rank  of  a  shipping  centre 
of  the  first  importance.  With  the  adequate  exploita- 
tion of  the  rich  Cagayan  Valley,  Aparri  will  become 
a  flourishing  port.  Before  many  years  have  passed 
some  point  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Luzon  will  receive 
a  considerable  proportion  of  the  freight  from  the 
eastward  and  will  tranship  it  to  Manila  by  rail. 


LUZON. 


XL 

LUZON. 

Travel  by  Water  in  the  Philippines — Filipino  Hospitality  is 
Inexhaustible — Home  Life  of  the  Tagals — A  Filipino 
Wedding — The  Religious  Bond  Not  Very  Strong— The 
Simple  Life  in  the  Philippines— Tho  Inevitable  Carabao 
— Some  of  the  Characteristics  of  the  Filipino  Peasant — 
They  Have  Their  Superstitions  Like  All  People — A 
Typical  Village  Fiesta — A  Planter's  Home — A  Never- 
Failing  Source  of  Entertainment — The  Principal  Feature 
of  the  Feast — Native  Pantomime  Dances — The  Moro- 
Moro  Play. 

Travel  in  the  Philippines  is  quite  haphazard  as  to 
its  methods,  but  it  has  all  the  charm  of  variety  and 
novelty  to  the  native  of  a  western  clime.  There  is  no 
occasion  for  time-tables  nor  for  making  prearrange- 
ments  except  of  the  most  general  character.  At  each 
point  the  manner  of  proceeding  to  the  next  will  be 
determined  by  the  conditions  of  the  moment.  But, 
despite  the  lack  of  regular  lines  of  communication 
between  any  but  the  centres,  the  difficulty  in  travel 
to  even  remote  parts  is  not  so  great  as  to  deter 
any  healthy  man,  and  the  mishaps  and  adventures 
that  must  always  attend  journeys  in  an  undeveloped 
country  are  such  as  to  lend  zest  to  the  undertaking. 

TRAVEL    BY    WATEE    IN    THE    PHILIPPINES. 

The  physical  character  of  Luzon  makes  transporta- 
tion by  water  one  of  the  most  convenient  and  ready 

(431) 


432  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

means  of  getting  from  place  to  place,  and  the  absence 
of  roads/  or  the  badness  of  them,  in  some  sections 
compels  the  traveler  to  make  a  detour  by  sea,  or  to 
take  to  the  river.  In  a  few  instances  a  coasting 
steamer  will  be  available,  but  more  often  the  native 
sailing  craft  must  be  resorted  to,  and  the  experience 
is  one  that  should  not  be  missed.  Worcester4*  recites 
the  incidents  of  such  a  voyage,  which  afforded  him 
unusual  opportunity  of  learning  something  of  the 
vagaries  of  wind  and  water  in  these  seas  and  of 
observing  the  remarkable  seamanship  of  the  Malay 
navigators. 

"At  half -past  two  we  got  off,  with  a  fresh  breeze 
blowing  from  the  north.  When  we  were  about  five 
miles  out  it  suddenly  veered  toward  the  east,  at  the 
same  time  increasing  in  strength  until  things  began 
to  look  ugly.  The  sky  darkened  and  to  the  south  of 
us  we  could  see  a  mighty  waterspout  marching 
grandly  along. 

"We  had  a  good,  staunch  boat,  with  strong  bamboo 
outriggers,  but  the  wind  was  dead  abeam  and  the 
sea  rising  rapidly.  Our  men  handled  their  craft 
with  wonderful  skill.  When  she  began  to  keel  over 
dangerously,  instead  of  reefing  sails  or  changing  the 
course,  they  sent  one  of  their  number  to  windward 
to  sit  on  the  outrigger.  As  the  wind  increased  in 
violence,  a  second,  then  a  third,  and,  finally,  a 


*  The  Philippine  Islands,  Dean  C.  Worcester,  New  York, 
1899. 


LUZON.  433 

fourth  man  walked  out  on  the  centre  crosspiece,  hold- 
ing to  the  stays  of  the  mainmast.  Two  of  the  crew 
sat  astride  the  outrigger  while  the  others  stood  close 
to  it,  keeping  the  boat  on  a  fairly  even  keel.  We 
should  have  done  very  well  had  the  wind  held  steady, 
but  it  began  to  come  in  sudden  puffs  and  squalls. 
The  men  watched  it  closely,  running  further  out  as 
a  squall  bore  down  on  us  and  hurrying  in  when  the 
wind  slackened;  but  with  all  their  remarkable  skill 
they  made  an  occasional  miscalculation,  bringing  the 
outrigger  down  just  in  time  to  cut  the  top  off  a  wave 
and  send  it  flying  inboard.  The  position  of  the  men 
who  were  balancing  the  boat  soon  became  precarious. 
One  moment  they  were  six  feet  above  the  water  and 
the  next  up  to  their  necks  in  it.  We  feared  they 
might  be  washed  away,  but  they  hung  on  grimly  with 
their  teeth  chattering. 

"Our  sail  was  old  and  rotten,  and  the  strain  finally 
proved  too  much  for  it.  There  came  a  sharp  report 
and  it  burst  through  the  middle.  In  five  minutes  it 
was  blown  to  ribbons,  and  we  were  drifting  at  the 
mercy  of  the  waves.  For  some  time  all  hands  bailed 
for  dear  life,  but  the  water  gained  on  us  steadily,  and 
it  looked  as  if  we  were  bound  to  fill  and  lie  disabled 
until  the  outriggers  were  carried  away,  when  we 
should  inevitably  go  to  the  bottom. 

"Two  of  the  men  suddenly  stopped  bailing  and 
began  to  overhaul  the  cargo.  To  our  amazement  they 
unearthed  a  new  sail  which  by  chance  they  had 

28 


434  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

undertaken  to  carry  over  to  a  friend.  How  they  man- 
aged to  rig  it  I  could  never  see.  The  boat  was  pitch- 
ing and  tossing  like  a  mad  thing,  and  I  thought  the 
man  who  climbed  the  mast  would  be  thrown  over- 
board, if  indeed  the  mast  itself  did  not  go  with  him. 
I  was  too  busy  to  pay  much  attention  to  anything  but 
the  bailing,  however,  for  the  fuller  the  boat  got  the 
faster  she  filled.  It  was  touch-and-go  business,  and 
for  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  we  should  be  awash  before 
they  could  get  the  sail  up;  but  they  won  out  at  the 
finish.  We  all  drew  a  long  breath  when  at  last  the 
boat  began  to  draw  ahead  again." 

FILIPINO  HOSPITALITY  IS  INEXHAUSTIBLE. 

Inland,  a  river  boat  will  sometimes  be  the  most 
expeditious  mode  of  conveyance,  but  most  often  the 
traveler  finds  the  native  pony,  or  cart,  best  adapted  to 
his  requirements.  In  the  rains  many  roads  are  im- 
passable except  by  carabao,  and  in  order  to  cover 
them  one  may  be  put  to  riding  that  ungainly  quad- 
ruped, as  the  natives  commonly  do. 

The  tribunal,  or  town  hall,  is  designed  to  accommo- 
date the  wayfarer,  but  every  Filipino  who  has  a  roof 
over  his  head  and  a  measure  of  rice  is  a  prospective 
host.  The  hospitality  of  the  Tagal  is  unsurpass- 
able and  inexhaustible.  The  white  man  will  find  a 
ready  welcome  at  the  house  of  the  capitan,  or  some 
well-to-do  planter.  In  an  out-of-the-way  hamlet, 
where  the  people  are  all  in  modest  circumstances,  his 


HOME  LIFE  OF  THE  TAGALS.  435 

quarters  may  be  less  pretentious  and  his  fare  sim- 
ple, but  the  one  will  be  clean  and  comfortable  and 
the  other  the  best  his  peasant  entertainer  can  afford. 
He  comes  without  warning  and  leaves  when  he 
pleases.  All  that  his  host  has,  or  can  procure  for 
his  comfort  or  pleasure,  are  eagerly  offered.  The 
head  of  the  establishment  will  cheerfully  neglect  his 
own  affairs  to  attend  to  those  of  his  guest,  at  whose 
service  he  places  all  the  men,  animals  and  material 
on  the  estate. 

HOME  LIFE  OF  THE   TAGALS. 

The  family  life  of  the  Tagals,  who  predominate 
in  Luzon,  is  exemplary.  The  man  treats  his  wife 
with  respect  and  kindness,  and  brings  his  children  up 
in  a  manner  that  might  afford  a  pattern  to  many  an 
American  father.  They  are  obedient  and  civil  to 
their  elders,  obliging  to  strangers,  without  anticipation 
of  reward,  and  willing  to  do  their  share  of  any  work 
that  may  be  going  forward.  The  women  are  indus- 
trious and  perform  a  great  deal  of  the  labor  in  the 
fields  and  about  the  house.  They  prepare  the  meals, 
hull  the  rice,  and  work  the  looms.  It  may  chance 
that  the  household  has  a  helper  in  the  form  of  a 
caiipado,  that  is  a  young  man  without  means,  who, 
aspiring  to  the  hand  of  one  of  the  daughters  of  the 
family,  is  required,  in  lieu  of  dower,  to  serve  his 
prospective  father-in-law  for  a  period,  which  may  be 
as  lor»2  as  two  or  three  years.  Thus,  courtship  among 


436  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  Tagals  is  not  the  light  and  airy  matter  it  19 
with  us.  On  the  other  hand,  the  arrangement  is  not 
viewed  by  the  youth  in  the  light  of  a  hardship,  for 
he  is  constantly  in  the  company  of  the  young  girl, 
and  is  permitted  to  assist  her  in  the  domestic  tasks. 
During  the  term  of  probation  the  swain  is  very  care- 
ful to  give  satisfaction  to  the  father  and  to  avoid 
incurring  the  displeasure  of '  any  member  of  the 
family,  for  he  is  liable  to  be  dismissed  otherwise, 
and  to  see  another  suitor  take  his  place.  The  prac- 
tice gives  easy  opportunity  to  a  calculating  and  un- 
scrupulous parent  to  trade  on  his  daughter's  charms, 
but  it  appears  that  such  abuse  of  confidence  is  not 
frequent.  The  young  couple  sometimes  force  a  re- 
luctant father's  hand  by  anticipating  the  privilege  of 
matrimony,  but  in  such  case  the  favored  youth  never 
seeks  to  avoid  a  permanent  alliance  with  his 
inamorata. 

In  the  tropics  puberty  is  reached  at  a  period 
which  we  consider  childhood,  and  natives  of  the 
Philippines  marry  early,  the  bride  often  being  no 
more  than  twelve  years  old.  The  marriage  ceremony 
is  the  occasion  of  great  display  and  outlay,  the  ex- 
pense frequently  leaving  the  interested  parties  in 
debt  for  a  year  or  two.  The  priest  sets  the  day  and 
exacts  a  generous  fee,  according  to  his  idea  of  the 
means  of  the  contracting  families. 

As  evening  approaches  a  procession  of  relatives 
and  friends  leaves  the  house  of  the  bride's  father  for 


A  FILIPINO  WEDDING.  437 

the  church,  where  the  usual  service  is  performed.  On 
leaving  the  building  a  plate  of  coins  is  presented  to 
the  groom,  who  takes  a  handful  and  gives  them  to 
his  wife,  thus  signifying  his  bestowal  upon  her  of 
his  worldly  wealth,  whatever  it  may  be.  This  endow- 
ment is  not,  however,  reciprocal,  for  a  wife's  goods 
remain  her  individual  possession,  and  her  husband 
cannot  in  any  case  inherit  them.  They  accrue  to  the 
children  upon  the  mother's  death  or,  failing  issue, 
revert  to  her  parents. 

The  ceremony  at  the  church  is  followed  by  a  feast 
at  the  residence  of  the  groom's  father.  This  feast, 
called  the  catapusan,  or  assembly  of  friends,  is  always 
a  sumptuous  affair.  The  relatives  of  both  the  young 
people  are  present,  and  all  the  notables  of  the  village 
are  invited.  Of  course  this  includes  the  cum,  who 
is  the  guest  of  honor,  no  matter  who  else  may  be 
there. 

Roast  pig  is  an  invariable  feature  of  these  ban- 
quets, but  the  table  is  loaded  with  everything  obtain- 
able in  the  form  of  viands,  including  many  delicacies 
which  the  good  folks  can  only  afford  to  indulge  in 
upon  such  extraordinary  occasions.  The  beverages 
are  wines  and  chocolate,  sometimes  reinforced  with 
imported  beer  and  European  spirits.  It  goes  with- 
out saying  that  cigars  and  cigarettes  are  supplied  in 
abundance,  and  betel-nut,  or  ~buyo,  is  also  provided. 
After  the  feast  the  padre,  who  is  usually  a  man  of 
tact,  goes  home  or  takes  a  nap  in  some  secluded 


438  ^THE  PHILIPPINES. 

corner,  whilst  the  young  people  dance  and  give  free 
vent  to  their  high  spirits. 

The  newly-married  couple  live  with  the  parents 
of  one  or  the  other  for  some  time,  and  perhaps 
permanently. 

If  the  contracting  families  are  in  easy  circum- 
stances the  preliminaries  to  a  marriage  include  a 
great  deal  of  dickering  between  the  respective  fathers 
on  the  subject  of  dowry  before  the  matter  can  be 
satisfactorily  arranged. 

THE  RELIGIOUS  BOND  NOT  VERY  STRONG. 

These  "children  of  the  country"  are  as  happy  and 
contented  as  any  people  in  the  world.  They  take 
life  lightly  and  accept  its  vicissitudes  with  admirable 
philosophy.  They  are  a  nation  of  Mark  Tapleys. 
Nothing  can  disturb  their  equanimity  seriously  or 
for  long.  Even  their  religion,  which  appeals  to  their 
natural  love  of  show  and  superstition,  has  no  deep 
hold  upon  them.  As  Reclus  says,  "the  Roman  Cath- 
olic religion  is  for  them  little  more  than  a  succes- 
sion of  festive  amusements.  Troubling  themselves 
little  about  dogma,  they  display  extraordinary  zeal 
in  the  celebration  of  the  pompous  rites  of  the  Roman 
liturgy,  and  a  great  part  of  their  existence  is  thus 
passed  in  the  observance  of  practices  not  greatly  dif- 
fering from  those  of  their  primitive  cult. 

"A  domestic  altar,  with  the  images  of  the  Madonna 
and  saints,  successors  of  the  ancient  anitos,  occupies 


THE  RELIGIOUS  BOND  NOT  VERY  STRONG.    439 

the  place  of  honor  in  every  household,  and  the  hum- 
blest hamlet  has  its  special  feast,  during  which  these 
sacred  images,  draped  in  embroidered  silks  and 
crowned  with  chaplets  of  flowers,  are  borne  at  the 
head  of  brilliant  processions.  The  churches,  built  in 
the  Spanish  'Jesuit'  style,  are  similarly  decorated 
with  rich  hangings,  bannerols,  and  floral  festoons, 
while  every  village  has  its  band  of  musicians,  who 
accompany  the  religious  ceremonies  with  a  flourish  of 
trombones  and  cymbals.  Actors  also  are  frequently 
engaged  to  perform  the  'mysteries'  and  to  play  come- 
dies, in  which  the  sacred  and  profane  are  strangely 
intermingled,  the  feast  days  kept  in  honor  of  the 
saints  usually  winding  up  with  a  grand  display  of 
fireworks." 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  CUEA. 

The  curd,  especially  if  a  Spaniard,  is  the  most 
influential  person  in  the  district,  and  to  him  the 
"Capitan"  applies  for  advice  on  all  serious  occasions. 
On  him,  more  than  upon  troops,  or  any  other  medium, 
the  Government  depended  for  the  submission  of  the 
converted  natives.  But  the  increasing  relations  with 
the  outer  world,  the  spread  of  education,  the  diffusion 
of  secular  literature,  the  dissemination  of  the  Spanish 
language,  all  tended  to  bring  about  a  new  order  of 
things,  under  which  the  Filipinos,  with  increased  ten- 
dency to  rise  to  European  standards,  were  bound  to 
gain  in  independence  and  moral  freedom. 


440  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  wants  of  the  Filipino  are  few  and  easily 
supplied.  That  he  is  satisfied  to  toil  only  to  the 
extent  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements  of  his 
simple  life  is  to  us,  victims  of  a  turgescent  material 
civilization,  a  crime.  At  least  the  Filipino  has  the 
ethic  philosophy  of  the  Stoics  on  his  side.  We  are 
prone  to  prate  about  the  virtue  of  labor,  but  we  do 
not  toil  for  the  pleasure  we  find  in  it.  Motive  is  the 
impelling  power,  and  it  is  in  the  result,  or  its  antici- 
pation, that  the  pleasure  lies.  Love  of  labor  is  not  a 
natural  characteristic  of  the  human,  or  any  other 
species  of  animal,  else  the  author  of  Genesis  was 
sadly  astray  in  his  picture  of  the  ideal  condition  of 
man  and  his  conclusion  that  the  greatest  curse  that 
could  be  inflicted  upon  him  was  the  condemnation  to 
gain  his  bread  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow. 

THE    SIMPLE    LIFE    IN    THE    PHILIPPINES. 

The  Filipino  is  much  nearer  to  Nature  in  his 
mental  and  physical  condition  than  ourselves,  and 
it  is  absurd  to  judge  him  by  our  standards.  Give  him 
an  adequate  incentive  and  he  will  probably  prove 
that  he  can  work  with  the  best  of  us.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  he  is  very  far  from  being  the  shiftless  loiterer 
that  has  been  depicted  to  us  by  uncultivated  observ- 
ers. The  discerning  visitor  to  the  Philippines,  who 
has  heard  so  much  of  the  slothful  helplessness  of 
the  natives,  will  be  surprised  by  the  evidences  of 
voluntary  industry  upon  every  hand.  He  will  see 


THE  INEVITABLE  CARABAO.  441 

men,  women,  and  children  working  hard  and  in- 
telligently, and  with  the  cheeriness  which  is  never 
present  in  the  sluggard.  In  order  to  follow  the  course 
of  a  day's  labor  he  will  have  to  rise  with  the  sun, 
and,  although  he  retires  from  the  mid-day  heat,  he 
must  follow  the  villagers  into  their  fields  again  with 
the  comparative  cool  of  the  evening. 

THE    INEVITABLE    CAKABAO. 

The  carabao  is  an  ever-prominent  object  in  these 
scenes.  He  is  indispensable  to  the  peasant  farmer, 
and  even  with  the  introduction  of  modern  methods 
would  still  remain  one  of  the  most  important  factors 
in  the  agricultural  economy  of  the  country.  He 
draws  the  plough,  and  drags  the  cart,  and  renders 
himself  useful  in  many  other  ways. 

The  carabao,  or  water-buffalo,  is  an  amphibious 
animal.  In  his  wild  state  he  spends  at  least  half 
his  time  in  the  water,  and  in  domesticity  the  inclina- 
tion to  do  so  remains,  although  the  opportunity  is 
curtailed.  However,  a  considerable  amount  of  in- 
dulgence in  this  direction  is  necessary  to  his  health. 
A  carabao  will  stand  motionless  in  the  water  for 
hours,  if  undisturbed,  with  just  the  tip  of  his  nose 
protruding.  This  placid  enjoyment  is  varied  by  nuz- 
zling in  the  soft  bottom  for  certain  tender  roots  and 
grass  that  appeal  to  his  appetite.  In  this  sub- 
aqueous search  he  can  keep  his  head  below  the  sur- 
face for  two  or  three  minutes.  A  mud-bath  he  must 


442  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

have  once  a  day,  and  he  will  take  one  as  often  as 
chance  favors.  He  will  lie  down  in  the  sticky  sub- 
stance and  roll  about  ponderously  until  his  body  is 
entirely  covered  with  it.  There  is  a  distinct  method 
in  this  apparent  madness,  for  Nature  furnishes  the 
adult  carabao  with  little  more  hair  than  she  gives  to 
the  new-born  human  baby,  and  the  quadruped  would 
be  the  easiest  of  prey  to  stinging  insects  but  for 
the  coat  of  clay  with  which  he  makes  up  for  his 
natural  deficiency. 

The  carabao  is  a  nondescript  beast.  He  has  a  head 
nearly  as  slim  as  that  of  an  antelope,  with  horns  that 
lie  back  along  his  neck.  His  trunk  is  almost  as 
bulky  as  that  of  a  hippopotamus  and  is  supported 
by  disproportionately-slender  legs.  His  appearance 
is  absurdly  stupid,  as  he  solemnly  wags  his  head  from 
side  to  side  and  looks  upon  the  world  with  the  in- 
different and  inane  expression  of  a  Chinese  idol.  The 
carabao  is  the  family  pet,  and  so  docile  are  these 
creatures  in  a  domestic  state  that  they  learn  the 
voices  of  their  masters  and  other  members  of  the 
household  and  come  to  their  call  or  act  in  answer 
to  their  command.  The  children  ride  upon  their 
broad  backs,  often  two  or  three  at  a  time,  and  guide 
them  with  the  string  attached  to  the  nose. 

The  never-absent  companion  of  the  carabao  in  the 
field  is  a  small  black  bird  of  the  martin  species,  which 
perches  upon  the  beast's  head  and  picks  from  its  ears 
vermin  that  gather  there.  The  writer  has  noticed 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PEASANT.  443 

this  bird-and-beast  combination  everywhere  in  the 
East  that  the  water-buffalo  is  found.  Following  the 
animal  in  his  progress  through  the  tilth  is  usually  a 
procession  of  four  or  five  white  herons  which  find  an 
easily-provided  meal  in  the  insects  that  are  turned 
up  with  the  soil. 

It  may  readily  be  understood  what  a  terrible  af- 
fliction was  the  rinderpest  that  overtook  these  useful 
animals  all  over  the  country  and  in  1902  killed  forty 
per  cent,  of  them.  In  many  cases  the  peasant  was 
deprived  at  once  of  his  chief  possession  and  of  a 
creature  for  which  he  entertained  a  warm  affection. 

SOME    OF    THE    CHARACTERISTICS    OF    THE    FILIPINO 
PEASANT. 

The  Filipino  is  naturally  humane.  He  almost  in- 
variably treats  lower  animals  well.  The  hack-drivers 
of  Manila  would  seem  to  form  an  exception  to  this 
rule,  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  their  occasional 
harshness  toward  their  horses  is  mainly  due  to  ignor- 
ance of  their  nature  and  the  consequent  lack  of 
understanding  between  the  two.  The  native  knows 
the  carabao  as  the  priest  knows  the  written  page,  but 
a  similar  intimacy  between  the  Filipino  and  the  horse 
has  never  been  established,  because  there  has  been 
no  opportunity  for  it. 

There  is  little  real  vice  in  the  composition  of  the 
uncontaminated  native,  and  his  faults  are  of  an  easily 
condonable  nature. 


444  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Filipino  displays  in  a  marked  degree  that 
cardinal  virtue,  cleanliness,  the  lack  of  which  is  so 
often  the  chief  barrier  between  the  Oriental  and  the 
white  man.  Every  barrio  has  facilities  for  bathing, 
and  on  feast  days,  when  labor  is  forbidden  by  the 
Church,  the  entire  community — men,  women  and 
children — disport  themselves  in  the  water.  There 
is  no  separation  of  the  sexes,  but  the  adults  are  be- 
comingly clad. 

No  characteristic  of  the  Tagal  is  more  prominently 
evinced  than  the  love  of  music,  which  is  universal. 
Every  parish  has  its  brass  band,  and  sometimes,  in 
addition,  an  orchestra  of  stringed  instruments.  They 
furnish  the  music  for  church  services  and  give  per- 
formances which  are  an  endless  source  of  entertain- 
ment to  the  villagers.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  a  people 
who  have  this  taste  so  strikingly  developed  must  pos- 
sess better  than  average  dispositions.  In  the  most 
out-of-the-way  and  unlikely  places  are  heard  the 
strains  of  a  flute,  a  violin,  or  a  piano,  and  the  labors 
of  the  field-workers  are  often  lightened  by  musical 
accompaniment.  It  is  a  remarkable  thing  that 
amongst  so  many  creditable  performers  so  few  attain 
to  a  high  degree  of  ability,  but  perhaps  that  is  entirely 
due  to  the  limited  opportunities  for  education,  and 
with  increased  facilities  for  cultivating  their  musical 
talent  the  Eilipinos  may  give  the  world  some  virtuosi 
of  renown  and  produce  their  Paderewskis  and  their 
Paganinis. 


THEY  HAVE  THEIR  SUPERSTITIONS.  445 

The  Tagal  has  the  Lepcha's  love  of  Nature  in  all 
her  manifestations,  and,  like  the  hillman  of  the 
Himalayas,  he  has  a  vast  knowledge  of  the  habits 
and  conditions  of  birds,  beasts,  and  reptiles. 

THEY   HAVE   THEIK  SUPERSTITIONS  LIKE  ALL   PEOPLE. 

The  Tagalogs  entertain  a  number  of  strange  super- 
stitions, from  which  the  better  educated  of  their  num- 
ber are  by  no  means  free.  Belief  in  the  amulet 
called  antin-antin  is  widespread,  but  the  more  enlight- 
ened find  a  satisfactory  substitute  in  the  scapulary. 
A  native  bent  on  gambling,  or  upon  his  way  to  the 
cock-pit  with  his  bird,  will  turn  back  should  he 
happen  to  encounter  a  funeral  party.  The  "nono" 
are  the  spirits  of  old  persons.  When  a  tree  is  to  be 
felled,  or  a  piece  of  virgin  ground  broken,  and  on 
many  other  occasions,  permission  is  asked  of  the 
nono.  Should  this  precaution  be  neglected  misfor- 
tune will  surely  ensue.  The  "tigbolan"  is  a  ghost 
which  assumes  a  variety  of  forms,  and  sometimes  con- 
fers a  similar  gift  upon  certain  favored  individuals, 
in  much  the  same  way  as  the  devil  was  wont  to  grant 
extraordinary  powers  to  a  few  of  our  adventuresome 
forefathers.  The  "asuan"  is  particularly  dreaded  by 
women,  for  its  practice  is  to  haunt  the  dwellings 
of  the  pregnant  with  sinister  intent.  The  "paiianac" 
is  the  restless  soul  of  a  child  that  died  unbaptized. 
It  frequents  the  woods  and  chirps  like  a  bird.  The 
"manqcuculan"  is  a  person  possessing  the  power  of 


446  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

causing  sickness,  or  death,  to  one  with  whom  he  or 
she  is  displeased.  An  individual  enjoying  the  repu- 
tation of  being  a  mangcuculan  is  not  pursued  with 
social  attentions,  but  is  treated  with  the  utmost  defer- 
ence by  everyone.  The  "iqui"  is  a  man  who  has  the 
power  of  flying  through  the  air  at  night,  leaving  the 
lower  half  of  his  body  at  home.  He  is  believed  to 
live  upon  a  diet  of  human  livers.  In  his  nocturnal 
journeys  in  search  of  food  he  alights  upon  the  roofs 
of  houses  and,  with  an  endless  thread-like  tongue, 
penetrates  the  bowels  of  his  victim  and  causes  his 
death. 

There  are  many  superstitions  connected  with  the 
erection  of  a  house.  No  holes  may  be  dug  for  posts 
unless  they  be  inserted  before  vespers  of  the  same 
day,  for  the  hole  is  typical  of  the  grave,  and  if  it 
were  to  be  left  unfilled  there  would  be  serious  danger 
of  some  member  of  the  family  dying  before  morning. 
However,  the  danger  may  be  averted  by  inserting 
some  temporary  substitute  for  the  post  in  the  hole. 
The  first  post  set  has  at  its  base  a  silver  coin,  which 
will  insure  the  owner  of  the  house  always  having 
money,  and  so  on  throughout  the  details  of  the  work. 

Of  course  there  are  many  curious  beliefs  connected 
with  the  different  agricultural  processes.  The  harvest 
of  rice  must  not  be  gathered  unless  the  moon  is  in  its 
first  or  last  stage,  and  many  a  native  will  conform 
to  this  prohibition  at  the  risk  of  losing  his  crop.  In 
order  to  secure  immunity  from  the  ravages  of  birds 


THEY  HAVE  THEIR  SUPERSTITIONS.          447 

and  insects,  the  farmer  goes  into  the  field  at  midnight, 
preceding  the  day  of  planting,  and  carefully  buries 
a  handful  of  seed  at  the  foot  of  a  cross  which  is  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  land.  After  the  rice  has  been 
reaped  the  owner  of  the  land  takes  the  smallest  basket 
he  possesses  and  deposits  in  it  a  small  sheaf  of  the 
grain.  This  act  tends  to  the  success  of  the  final  pro- 
cesses, but  to  be  efficacious  it  must  be  performed  when 
the  tide  is  at  its  highest. 

Patriotism  in  the  broadest  sense  cannot  be  expected 
of  a  man  who  is  utterly  ignorant  of  the  world  beyond 
a  radius  of  a  few  miles  from  his  native  village,  and 
who  has,  perhaps,  but  the  vaguest  idea  of  what  the 
"Philippines"  signifies,  but  the  Tagal  is  strongly  at- 
tached to  the  soil  and  the  barrio  in  which  he  was  born. 
Nowhere  are  community  bonds  happier  or  closer. 
The  inhabitants  of  a  village  have  the  same  church 
and  the  same  fatherly  guide  and  adviser;  they  share 
their  pleasures  and  their  labors ;  the  misfortunes  of 
one  are  those  of  the  others ;  a  discordant  element 
rarely  disturbs  the  peaceful  round  of  their  lives. 
They  are  seen  at  their  best  on  the  occasion  of  a  fiesta, 
and  no  more  true  and  vivid  picture  of  village  life 
in  the  Philippines  can  be  found  than  the  following 
quotation  from  the  pen  of  Ramon  Lala,  himself  a 
native  :* 


*  The  Philippine  Islands.     Ramon  Reyes  Lala,  New  York, 
1899. 


448  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Nothing  in  the  life  of  the  people  of  the  Philippines 
is  more  interesting  to  the  foreigner  than  the  village 
feasts ;  nothing  is  more  indicative  of  the  character  of 
the  people,  who  are  exceedingly  fond  of  ornament  and 
display.  Every  village  has  its  own  feasts,  to  which 
all  the  natives  in  the  surrounding  district  contribute 
— in  which  all  alike  take  part. 

A  TYPICAL  VILLAGE  FIESTA. 

These  feasts  are  always  of  a  religious  character, 
and  are  encouraged  by  the  clergy,  \vho  find  them  not 
only  lucrative  but  also  conducive  to  religious  feeling. 

Come  with  me  and  visit  the  busy  morning  scene  of  a 
fiesta  in  a  populous  village  near  the  capital.  As  we 
enter  the  broad  roadway,  winding  with  serpentine 
folds,  among  the  gleaming  bungalows  we  see  every- 
where signs  of  unusual  activity;  groups  of  smiling 
natives,  dressed  in  their  Sunday  best,  hurry  by  chat- 
tering gaily.  Here  comes  a  long  line  of  carromatas 
drawn  by  wiry  ponies,  driven  by  well-to-do  planters ; 
with  the  lofty  consciousness  of  worldly  prosperity 
they  sit  erect  in  imperturbable  dignity. 

We  join  a  passing  group  and  follow  them  past  the 
low,  airy  houses,  all  decorated  now  with  gorgeous 
bunting  and  gay  festoons.  Flags  and  streamers  flut- 
ter on  every  housetop;  the  whole  village  presents  a 
scene  of  picturesque  animation;  for  the  tropical  lux- 
uriance of  the  trees  and  the  myriad  flowers  of  gorge- 
ous hue  form  a  brilliant  background. 


A  TYPICAL  VILLAGE  FIESTA.  449 

Wo  arrive  at  the  village  green  and  here  stands  a 
motley  assemblage  constantly  reinforced  by  the 
throngs  that  come  in  by  every  path  and  roadway.  An 
expression  of  eager  anticipation  is  on  the  faces  of  all 
as  they  gaze  in  the  direction  of  the  little  church  that 
fronts  the  crowded  court.  The  church  is  a  low,  mas- 
sive, white  building,  with  large  pillars  in  front  that 
give  it  a  semi-classic  appearance;  it  forms  a  curious, 
but  not  uninteresting,  contrast  to  the  many-gabled 
bungalows.  The  bells  in  the  campanile  begin  to  toll 
slowly  and  from  the  midst  of  the  crowd  instantly 
comes  a  burst  of  glorious  music.  The  village  band 
stationed  there  renders  effectively  an  operatic  air  as 
the  natives  slowly  enter  the  church.  After  all  are 
seated  the  priest  preaches  a  short  sermon,  full  of  pith 
and  pertinent  suggestion  about  the  saint  whom  the 
day  commemorates.  The  audience  is  then  dismissed 
with  a  benediction;  and  to  the  lively  music  of  some 
composer  it  files  leisurely  out.  The  natives  see  noth- 
ing incongruous  in  the  introduction  of  operatic  music 
into  divine  worship.  They  are  moved  in  devotion  no 
less  by  the  stirring  strains  of  one  of  Sousa's  marches, 
or  a  languorous  waltz  of  Strauss,  than  by  the  solemn 
Te  Deum  of  the  Catholic  ritual  To  them  all  music 
is  divine. 

We  stop  a  few  minutes  to  watch  the  cura — the 
parish  priest — as  he  dispenses  blessings  to  his  devout 
parishioners,  who  now  crowd  round  him  with  every 
appearance  of  reverential  affection.  Our  friend,  the 

29 


450  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

curaf  is  a  veritable  father  to  his  people.  As  he  lis- 
tens to  the  ingenuous  confidences  of  his  flock  his  face 
beams  with  that  rare  benevolence  born  of  goodness; 
there  is  a  whisper  of  domestic  sorrow  that  he  needs 
must  hear;  a  story  of  happiness,  or  a  tale  of  wrong. 
For  each  and  all  he  has  a  word  of  kindly  affection, 
and  as  he  sees  us  waiting  near  the  entrance  he  ap- 
proaches with  outstretched  hand  and  invites  us  to  the 
grand  procession  in  the  evening. 

The  people  have  dispersed  and  have  returned  to 
their  homes.  Already  the  sun  is  high  in  the  sky, 
pouring  a  deluge  of  heat  upon  the  landscape.  From 
the  horizon  mountain  after  mountain  springs  airily 
into  the  heavens,  their  blue  peaks  suggesting  a  place 
of  perpetual  coolness,  upon  which  the  eye  loves  to 
linger  amid  the  oppressive  blaze  of  the  tropic  sun. 


Surrounding  the  village  are  forests  of  majestic 
trees  of  indescribable  grandeur  and  of  unparalleled 
magnificence.  Among  these  the  white  houses  of  the 
planters  nestle  peacefully. 

Each  house  has  its  own  tiny  garden,  fenced  in  with 
reeds,  and  forms  a  miniature  paradise,  where  are 
flowers  of  splendid  hue,  creepers  with  purple  blos- 
soms, red-coral  blooms,  and  trees  of  palm,  mango, 
orange,  lanzon,  santol,  and  giant  bananas  whose  rich 
fruits  in  great  clusters  tempt  the  eye  of  the  beholder. 
Here  the  native  is  a  petty  king ;  for  his  own  little  do- 


A  PLANTER'S  HOME.  451 

main  for  nine  months  in  the  year  yields  sufficient  for 
his  wants.  Nature  indeed  gives  him  a  golden  harvest 
for  only  the  reaping. 

We  have  been  invited  to  spend  the  day  with  a 
well-to-do  planter  who,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  service, 
has  sought  us  out.  He  lives  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
village,  and  we  are  soon  with  him  in  his  carromata 
speeding  over  the  highway. 

We  approach  his  home — a  typical  native  dwelling ; 
the  body  of  the  house  is  raised  about  six  feet  from 
the  ground,  and  is  mounted  on  thick  pieces  of  stone. 
This  allows  the  air  to  circulate  freely  beneath  and 
prevents  the  entrance  of  snakes  and  insects,  and  is  in 
every  way  conducive  to  health  and  comfort.  We 
mount  the  wide  stairway  that  connects  the  house  with 
the  ground  -and  enter  upon  a  broad  open  piazza  fac- 
ing the  street,  called  a  cahida.  The  sides  of  this  are 
formed  of  sliding  windows  composed  of  small  square 
panes  of  mother-of-pearl,  opaque  to  the  heat,  but 
admitting  the  rays  of  light.  Here  we  are  intro- 
duced to  the  various  members  of  the  family,  who  re- 
ceive us  kindly  and  offer  sugared  dainties  and  a  cigar- 
ette. Beyond  is  a  large  room  with  walls  of  window 
and  with  sliding  doors.  Here  are  some  chairs  and  a 
table  covered  with  a  handsome  embroidered  cloth. 
Upon  the  walls,  which  are  covered  with  cloth  instead 
of  plaster,  are  various  bric-a-brac  artistically  arranged 
upon  scrolls,  while  several  engravings  of  religious  sub- 
jects and  one  or  two  family  portraits  hang  between. 


452  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

From  the  centre  of  the  ceiling  hangs  a  crystal 
chandelier  with  globes  of  colored  glass;  a  small 
oratory,  supporting  the  brazen  image  of  some  saint, 
stands  in  the  corner.  The  broad  floor-planks,  daily 
scrubbed  and  polished  with  plantain  leaves,  are  as 
smooth  and  clean  as  a  mirror. 

Opening  from  this  main  room  are  several  smaller 
rooms,  used  as  bedrooms.  A  narrow  passageway  leads 
to  the  bathroom  and  to  the  kitchen — in  a  separate 
building.  The  design  of  the  whole  domicile  seems 
to  aim  at  cleanliness  and  coolness — both  essentials 
of  comfort  in  this  hot,  moist  climate. 

The  roof  is  thatched  with  nipa  palm  and  the  out- 
side walls  of  bamboo — painted  white  and  striped  with 
green  and  blue — are  covered  with  grotesque  carvings. 
This,  with  the  broad  eaves  and  the  wide  balconies, 
gives  the  house  a  most  picturesque  appearance. 

We  note  with  gratification  the  many  signs  of  family 
affection  around  us.  The  father,  kind  and  consider- 
ate ;  the  mother,  sweet  and  sympathetic ;  the  children, 
quiet,  obedient,  and  well-behaved — a  picture  of  do- 
mestic happiness  that  is  representative  rather  than 
exceptional.  After  tiffin,  each  retires  to  his  own 
room  to  enjoy  the  siesta;  and  thus  we  sleep  soundly 
through  the  heavy  afternoon  hours. 

The  siesta  over,  we  venture  into  the  village. 
Through  the  streets  are  hurrying  scores  of  men,  nearly 
every  one  with  a  cock  under  his  arm ;  they  are  going 
to  the  cock-pit.  We  follow  and  soon  we  come  to  our 
destination. 


SOURCE  OF  ENTERTAINMENT.  453 

Imagine  a  large  bamboo  building  with  a  thatched 
roof  wherein  hundreds  of  natives  have  gathered  for 
what  is  to  them  the  supreme  enjoyment  of  life. 
Around  the  door  are  one  or  two  guards  in  Spanish 
uniform ;  but  everything  appears  so  decorous  and  or- 
derly that  is  is  indeed  difficult  to  realize  that  we  are 
in  a  gigantic  gambling  den.  Nearly  every  native  has 
with  him  his  fighting-cock,  which  he  loves  as  devot- 
edly as  one  of  his  own  children  and  upon  which  he 
has  spent  much  care  and  attention. 

The  "farmer,"  often  a  Chinaman,  who  has  secured 
a  license  from  the  Government  to  run  a  cock-pit, 
stands  in  the  middle  of  the  ring,  around  him  a  group 
of  natives,  excited  and  eager. 

Two  fighting-cocks,  each  armed  with  a  spur  three 
or  four  inches  long,  are  in  the  hands  of  their  respective 
owners.  Every  eye  is  riveted  upon  the  respective  con- 
testants. The  farmer,  or  proprietor,  announces  that 
the  contest  is  about  to  begin,  and  from  every  hand 
dollars  rain  into  the  ring,  each  person  staking  a  cer- 
tain amount  upon  his  favorite. 

This  done,  all  is  breathless  expectation,  and  at 
the  word  "Casada!"  meaning  matched,  and  at 
"Largo!" — Let  go! — the  fowls  are  let  loose.  The 
fight  waxes  hot  and  furious;  the  two  cocks  are  as 
pugnacious  as  bull-pups.  But  it  is  soon  over ;  for  at  a 
well-directed  thrust  from  the  steel  spur  one  of  the 
contestants  lies  dead. 

The  crier  now  announces  the  name  of  the  victor. 


454  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

and  all  the  winners  come  down  into  the  middle  of  the 
ring  and  pick  up  their  own  stakes  as  well  as  the 
amount  won  by  the  wager. 

Strangers  often  remark  how  unusual  it  is  that 
amidst  so  much  confusion  and  where  is  apparently 
boundless  opportunity  for  cheating  there  should  be  so 
much  honesty  and  good  faith.  However,  every  man 
is  to  be  trusted.  I  have  never  known  but  one  excep- 
tion— he  was  instantly  hacked  to  pieces  with  knives. 

It  is  night.  Against  the  sombre  gloom  of  the 
heavens  gleam  millions  of  stars ;  they,  too,  are  a  part 
of  the  grand  illumination  that  is  to  be  the  climax  of 
the  whole  -fiesta.  Again  the  village  green  in  front 
of  the  church.  It  is  alive  writh  the  happy  villagers 
decked  in  all  their  finery — the  men  and  boys  in 
airy  colored  shirts  and  white  trousers,  the  women  and 
girls  in  splendid  skirts  and  brilliant  chemisettes. 

THE    PRINCIPAL    FEATURE    OF   THE    FEAST. 

All  are  standing  bareheaded ;  the  band  is  discours- 
ing sweet  music,  and  the  people  stand  entranced. 
Not  a  sound  is  heard  till  the  tune  is  ended ;  then  on 
every  hand  arises  a  decorous  murmur  of  delight. 
Here  comes  the  cum.  He  at  once  proceeds  to  ar- 
range the  procession  which  is  the  event  of  the  feast 
and  to  which  the  villagers  have  been  looking  forward 
with  joyous  anticipation  for  many  months.  Mysteri- 
ous groups  are  issuing  from  the  church;  these  are 
assigned  to  their  respective  positions  by  the  father, 


PRINCIPAL  FEATURE  OF  THE  FEAST.  455 

who  in  this,  as  in  all  else,  is  the  master  of  cere- 
monies. Let  us,  however,  leave  the  crowd  and  move 
a  little  way  up  the  street,  where  before  long  the  pro- 
cession is  to  pass.  Over  the  roadway,  from  airy 
arches  gaily-decorated  with  bunting  are  suspended 
Chinese  lanterns.  On  the  gateways  to  the  houses, 
on  all  the  fences  that  line  the  street,  hang  little  fat 
pots  whose  pale  nicker,  multiplied  a  thousand-fold, 
produces  a  romantic  effect  to  which  the  lights  on  the 
arches  and  the  many-colored  illuminated  lamps  in  the 
windows  add  a  subdued  splendor. 

We  have  not  long  to  wait,  for  the  procession  has 
been  speedily  arranged  and  is  already  making  its 
way  up  the  street,  the  band  at  the  head  playing  an 
operatic  air. 

Behind  come  the  happy  participants,  two  by  two; 
men  and  women  alternating.  All  carry  torches  whose 
glow  throws  over  their  grave  faces  a  gleam  of  soft 
light  that  harmonizes  well  with  the  nature  of  the 
occasion. 

And  now  comes  the  spangled  image  of  some  old 
saint  borne  aloft  on  a  litter;  while  a  murmur  of  ap- 
plause bursts  from  the  admiring  onlookers.  From 
every  house  rockets  are  shot  into  the  heavens,  shower- 
ing on  the  dusky  night  constellations  of  colored  stars. 

Thus  saint  after  saint,  martyr  after  martyr,  is 
majestically  borne  along  till,  near  the  end  of  the  pro- 
cession, appears  the  image  of  the  Virgin  herself, 
"decked  with  jewels  bright  and  with  glory  crowned." 


456  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Now  the  murmur  rises  to  a  shout  of  devout  acclaim ; 
the  Queen  of  the  festive  night,  Our  Lady,  passes  on. 

Thus  through  every  street  winds  the  brilliant  pro- 
cession under  the  lighted  arches  returning  finally  to 
the  village  court  whence  it  started.  Here  the  priest 
pronounces  a  benediction  and  with  a  clash  of  trium- 
phant music  the  participants  are  dimissed. 

Again  we  accompany  our  host  back  to  his  hospitable 
mansion,  where  a  generous  meal  has  been  prepared 
for  us.  We  partake  heartily  of  the  good  things, 
roast  pig,  chicken,  many  kinds  of  native  fruits,  and 
rice.  At  the  close  cigarettes  are  passed  round — 
both  men  and  women  smoking — and  we  soon  enter 
into  conversation  while  the  new  arrivals  are  being 
served. 

NATIVE     PANTOMIME     DANCES. 

It  is  our  host's  grand  reception  night.  A  hun- 
dred guests  have  partaken  of  his  bounty  and  the 
verandah  and  the  sitting-room  are  crowded  with 
friends  and  neighbors — invited  and  uninvited;  all 
are  equally  welcome.  Cigars  and  cigarettes  are 
passed  around,  and  now  the  fun  begins.  A  girl — 
a  wonderfully  sweet  and  pretty  creature,  with  glow- 
ing black  eyes  and  long,  loose  black  hair — advances 
to  the  centre  of  the  room  and  croons  a  low,  plaintive 
air,  reminiscent  of  unrequited  love.  She  accom- 
panies her  music  with  a  wierd  dance,  impressive 
through  its  very  simplicity.  Gradually  her  tones 


NATIVE  PANTOMIME  DANCES.  457 

grow  louder,  and  her  movements  quicker,  signifying 
all  the  varying  degrees  of  advance  and  refusal.  Her 
supple  body  glides  in  a  thousand  graceful  curves, 
each  eloquent  of  beauty.  Her  pale,  olive  face  be- 
comes mantled  with  a  rich  crimsontide  as  she  lashes 
herself  into  a  fury  of  passion.  She  feigns  anger,  and 
stamping  her  pretty  feet,  now  in  petulant  disdain, 
now  in  a  paroxysm  of  wrath,  stands  the  incarnation 
of  beautiful  rage.  It  is  a  picture  full  of  tragic 
power,  of  deep  significance.  She  is  approaching  the 
climax  of  her  passion.  Her  voice  is  sharp  and  shrill 
as  it  trembles  with  scorn  and  defiance.  Forward  and 
backward  her  body  sways  with  a  rhythmic  swing  that 
compels  the  attention  of  every  beholder.  Many  in 
fact  accompany  her  every  motion  with  the  sympa- 
thetic movement  of  unconscious  imitation ;  their  faces 
mirror  the  feelings  of  the  dancer. 

And  now  a  note  of  triumph  rings  out,  and  the 
singer's  face  glows  with  an  expression  of  ecstacy; 
while  bounding  forward,  her  splendid  hair  trailing  in 
waves  of  ebony,  she  seems  transformed — the  apothe- 
osis of  joy.  Then,  slowly  decreasing  in  volume,  her 
voice  sinks  to  a  low  whisper  of  serene  content,  and 
blushing  modestly  at  the  applause,  she  retires  to  give 
place  to  others. 

Two  young  men  and  a  girl  now  come  forward  and 
a  scene  of  desperate  rivalry  on  the  part  of  the  men 
and  of  tantalizing  coquetry  on  the  part  of  the  maiden 
is  enacted.  This  is  by  means  of  a  series  of  intricate 


458  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

dance  movements,  no  less  striking  than  original.  A 
pretty  tableau  truly,  and  one  not  lacking  in  sentiment 
and  in  spontaneous  expression.  A  foreigner  would 
believe  that  these  young  natives  were  in  terrible 
earnest  and  that  they  were  rehearsing  a  passion  of 
the  heart.  Such,  indeed,  is  often  the  case,  and  many  a 
girl  has,  through  the  license  of  this  dance,  shown 
her  preference.  Many  a  youth,  too,  has  seen  his  hopes 
blasted  and  his  rival  exalted  by  a  dainty  pirouette. 

THE  MORO-MOKO  PLAY. 

Dance  after  dance  follows,  and  it  is  getting  late. 
But  another  entertainment  is  in  store  for  us,  and  so 
once  more  we  venture  forth  into  the  night  en  route  to 
the  village  green. 

Here  has  been  erected  a  large  booth,  around  which 
hundreds  of  natives  are  standing,  in  attitudes  of  pro- 
found attention.  A  moro-moro  play  is  going  on. 
This  is  a  sort  of  Philippine  miracle-play,  in  which 
kings,  and  queens,  and  soldiers,  and  various  per- 
sonages with  Biblical  names,  contend  together.  There 
is  rivalry,  ruin,  and  despair;  there  is  death,  murder, 
and  awful  retribution.  It  is  a  tumultuous  tragedy, 
in  which,  too,  are  some  subtle  and  refined  elements 
and  a  kind  of  gross  humor,  represented  by  the  stage 
fool  and  the  lads  that  take  the  female  parts.  There 
is,  however,  no  coarseness — not  a  suggestion  of  it. 
Love  and  religious  persuasion  and  devotion  mark  the 
greatest  number  of  moro-moro  performances,  and 


THE  MORO-MORO  PLAY.  459 

while  some  of  the  plays  are  fairly  good — not  judg- 
ing from  too  lofty  a  standpoint — yet,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  indeed  amusing  to  note  how  little  in 
this  line,  how  thin  a  texture,  pleases  the  people; 
bombast  and  fury,  honeyed  accents  and  unnecessary 
vicarious  suffering,  false  and  flagrant  violations  of 
dramatic  art — all  alike  are  viewed  with  breathless 
interest  and  applauded  or  stoically  witnessed  as  the 
occasion  demands.  The  entire  play  is  given  in  the 
Tagal  language. 

The  native  spectators,  indeed,  enter  into  the  action 
of  the  play  with,  as  it  were,  a  grim  earnest,  as  if  all 
their  mental  faculties  were  judging  complex  emo- 
tions and  nice  situations.  Nothing,  indeed,  in  the 
native  character  is  more  remarkable  than  its  unvary- 
ing decorum.  Here  the  happy  crowd  has  been  stand- 
ing for  three  hours  agape  with  delight,  drinking  in 
the  rude  splendors  of  tinsel  potentates.  Here,  too, 
they  would  be  willing  to  stand  for  several  hours 
longer,  but  it  is  nearly  midnight  and  a  sudden  illumi- 
nation on  the  other  side  of  the  square  announces  that 
the  time  for  departure  is  nearly  at  hand. 

It  is  seen  that  the  villagers  have  constructed  a 
miniature  castle  now  ablaze  with  fireworks.  Vari- 
ous designs  are  traced  by  the  spreading  glow,  and 
scores  of  rockets  shoot  into  the  sky,  dropping  a  shower 
of  brilliant  stars.  Ever  and  anon,  at  some  unusual 
display,  a  murmur  of  applause  rises  from  the  admir- 
ing throng.  Entranced,  they  stay  until  the  last 


460  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

rocket  has  been  drowned  in  the  vast  ocean  of  night. 
Then  all  leave  as  silently  as  they  came,  and  the  vil- 
lage square  is  soon  deserted,  while  the  lamps  and 
lanterns  are  allowed  to  burn  till  their  glow  is  quenched 
in  the  brightness  of  the  morrow's  sun. 


THE  VISAYAS. 


XII. 

THE  VISAYAS. 

Characteristics  of  the  Visayans — Iloilo,  the  Capital  of  Panay 
— Island  of  Guimaras — Iloilo  Province  and  Its  Indus- 
tries— The  Relapse  of  Mindoro  into  Wilderness — The 
Sugar  Fields  of  Negros — The  Natural  Beauties  of  Samar 
— Catbalogan — The  Remontados,  a  Reversion  to  a  Wild 
Type — Masbate,  a  Vast  Grazing  Ground — Historic  Cebu — 
The  Holy  Child  of  Cebu — Cebu  as  a  Shipping  Cen- 
tre— Old  Landmarks  and  Historic  Sites — The  Hardy 
Islanders  of  Bohol — The  Island  of  Siquijor — The  Fate 
of  Delinquent  Taxpayers  Under  Spain — Leyte. 

The  \7isayan  Islands  are  a  very  important  com- 
mercial division  of  the  Philippines.  Practically  all 
the  sugar  exported  from  the  Archipelago  and  a  large 
proportion  of  the  hemp  is  produced  in  this  group. 
There  are  many  points  of  dissimilarity  between  the 
Visayans  and  the  Tagals,  and  they  do  not  consider 
themselves  the  same  people,  nor  have  they  any  love 
for  each  other.  The  Yisayan  is  less  intelligent  than 
the  Tagal  and  has  fewer  attractive  qualities,  hut 
the  charge  of  excessive  indolence  that  is  frequently 
brought  against  him  appears  to  have  less  foundation 
than  the  equally  serious  one  that  he  is  a  little  too 
prone  to  indulge  to  excess  in  strong  drink. 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF  THE   VISAYANS. 

Foreman  says:  aThe  Visaya  native's  cold  hospi- 
tality is  much  tempered  with  avarice  or  the  prospects 

(463) 


464  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

of  personal  gain — quite  a  contrast  to  the  Tagalog. 
On  the  first  visit  he  might  admit  you  to  his  house  out 
of  mere  curiosity  to  know  all  about  you — whence  you 
came,  why  you  travel,  how  much  you  possess,  and 
where  you  are  going.  The  basis  of  his  estimation 
of  a  visitor  is  his  worldly  means,  or  if  the  visitor  be 
engaged  in  trade  his  power  to  facilitate  his  host's 
schemes  would  bring  him  a  certain  measure  of  civil- 
ity and  complaisance.  He  is  fond  of  and  seeks  the 
patronage  of  Europeans  of  position.  In  manners  the 
Visayo  is  uncouth  and  brusque  and  more  conceited, 
arrogant,  self-reliant,  ostentatious,  and  unpolished, 
than  his  northern  neighbor.  If  remonstrated  with 
for  any  fault  he  is  quite  disposed  to  an  impertinent 
retort  or  sullen  defiance. 

"The  women,  too,  are  less  compliant  in  the  South 
than  in  the  North,  and  evince  an  almost  incredible 
avarice.  They  are  excessively  fond  of  ornament,  and 
at  feasts  they  appear  adorned  with  an  amount  of 
gaudy  French  jewelry  which,  compared  with  their 
means,  has  cost  them  a  lot  of  money  to  purchase  from 
the  swarm  of  Jew  peddlers  who  invade  the  villages. 

"If  an  European  calls  on  a  well-to-do  Visayo,  the 
women  of  the  family  saunter  off  in  one  direction  and 
another  to  hide  themselves  in  other  rooms,  unless  the 
visitor  be  well  known  to  the  family.  If  met  by 
chance,  perhaps  they  will  return  a  salutation,  perhaps 
not.  They  seldom  indulge  in  a  smile  before  stran- 
gers; have  no  conversation;  no  tuition  beyond  music 


THE  VISAYAS.  465 

and  the  lives  of  the  Saints;  and  altogether  impress 
the  traveler  with  their  insipidity  of  character,  which 
chimes  badly  with  the  air  of  disdain  which  they 
exhibit. 

"I  stayed  for  some  months  in  an  important  Visaya 
town,  in  the  house  of  a  European  who  was  married 
to  a  native  woman,  and  was  much  edified  by  observ- 
ing the  visitors  from  the  locality.  The  Senora,  who 
was  somewhat  pretentious  in  her  social  aspirations 
amongst  her  own  class,  occasionally  came  to  the  table 
to  join  us  at  our  meals,  but  more  often  preferred  to 
eat  on  the  floor  in  her  own  bedroom,  where  she  could 
follow  her  native  custom,  at  her  ease,  of  eating  with 
her  fingers." 

In  the  main,  however,  the  Visayans  are  much  like 
other  Filipinos.  There  is  no  great  difference  in 
their  customs,  manner  of  living,  superstitions  and 
mental  habits. 

The  interior  districts  of  many  of  the  Visayas  are 
inhabited  by  monteses,  mountain  tribes  living  in  vary- 
ing conditions  of  barbarism.  As  a  general  thing  they 
are  peaceable  and  harmless,  but  they  retain  a  few 
ancient  customs  that  are  apt  to  prove  a  trifle  embar- 
rassing to  a  stranger.  It  is  their  belief  that  the  spirit 
of  a  person  who  has  died  amongst  them  will  not  be 
happy  if  allowed  to  depart  in  solitude  to  the  un- 
known. Consequently,  and  in  order  to  avoid  the  ill- 
will  of  the  deceased,  they  set  out  immediately  after 
he  has  breathed  his  last  to  find  a  companion  for  him. 


466  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

This  practice  is,  as  may  easily  be  imagined,  a  great 
check  on  sociability,  and  these  people,  instead  of 
forming  communities,  live  in  isolated  families,  each 
on  the  qui  vive  to  prevent  another  snatching  from  it 
an  unwilling  traveling  companion  for  some  deceased 
member. 

ILOILO,    THE    CAPITAL    OF    PANAY. 

Iloilo,  on  the  Island  of  Panay,  is  the  second  city 
in  importance  of  the  Philippines,  and  is  rapidly  grow- 
ing as  a  trade  centre  and  a  shipping  point.  Despite 
its  great  commerce,  the  city  was  miserably  neglected 
under  the  Spanish  rule.  The  streets,  subjected  to 
much  heavy  traffic,  became  worse  than  country  roads 
and  were  allowed  to  remain  in  that  condition.  The 
sanitary  arrangements  were  abominable  and  the  light- 
ing inadequate.  The  port  transacted  its  enormous 
business  under  almost  incredible  difficulties.  Ocean 
vessels  could  not  enter  the  river  and  so  were  obliged 
to  transfer  their  freights  by  means  of  lighters.  Coast- 
ing steamers,  drawing  not  more  than  thirteen  feet 
of  water,  could  navigate  the  muddy  creek,  but  when 
they  reached  the  city  they  found  not  even  the  most 
ordinary  accommodations  for  loading  and  discharg- 
ing cargo.  There  were  no  wharves,  no  cranes,  not 
even  any  regular  moorings.  Vessels  tied  up  where 
they  pleased  and  got  their  stuff  on  or  off-board  as 
best  they  could.  Iloilo  is  entering  upon  an  era  of 
reform  as  regards  this  and  other  matters. 


ISLAND  OF  GUIMARAS.  467 

The  port  has  no  light,  although  the  erection  of  a 
lighthouse  was  commenced  twenty  years  ago  and  the 
money  for  its  completion  has  been  collected  by  the 
officials  three  or  four  times  over.  Ever  since  the  first 
stone  of  the  structure  was  laid  the  authorities  have 
mulcted  every  ship  that  entered  the  harbor  for  light- 
house dues. 

ISLAND  OF  GUIMAKAS. 

Guimaras,  an  island  about  twelve  miles  square  and 
distant  but  one  mile  from  Iloilo,  is  a  very  healthy  and 
picturesque  place,  enjoying  a  situation  involving  com- 
mercial possibilities  that  will  be  exploited  some  day. 
A  few  of  the  European  merchants  of  Iloilo  have  resi- 
dences upon  the  island. 

The  fishing  industry  of  Guimaras  is  quite  im- 
portant, Iloilo  affording  a  ready  and  convenient  mar- 
ket for  the  take.  Very  little  of  the  soil  of  the  island 
is  fertile,  and  on  that  hemp,  rice,  corn,  and  tobacco 
are  raised.  The  cocoanut,  however,  which  will  flour- 
ish where  nothing  else  may  grow,  is  plentiful,  and 
therein  lies  the  future  wealth  of  this  little  spot  of 
land.  The  natives  do  not  make  a  commercial  use  of 
the  nut,  but  extract  tuba  from  the  tree  which,  in  the 
absence  of  capital,  is  perhaps  the  most  profitable  pur- 
pose to  which  they  could  put  it.  Worcester  thus  de- 
scribes the  process  of  collecting  the  fluid :  "Few  nuts 
were  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  trees  near  our  house. 
Many  large  groves  produce  no  fruit  at  all.  The 


468  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

branches  of  the  blossom-stalk  are  tied  together  into  a 
compact  bundle,  their  ends  are  cut  off  and  thrust  into 
a  hollow  joint  of  bamboo,  called  a  bombon.  The  sap 
which  flows  abundantly  from  the  wounds  thus  made 
is  known  as  tuba  and  is  gathered  morning  and  night. 
Notches  are  cut  in  the  bark  of  the  trees  as  they  grow 
taller  and  the  tuba-gatherer,  who  is  not  encumbered 
with  much  clothing,  puts  his  toes  in  them  and  climbs 
the  stem  of  a  lofty  palm  as  if  it  were  a  ladder.  All 
the  palms  in  a  grove  are  usually  planted  at  one  time 
and  remain  of  fairly  uniform  height.  In  many  in- 
stances bamboo  bridges  are  built  from  tree  to  tree, 
so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  climb  each  one. 

"The  tuba-gatherer  carries  on  his  back  a  large  joint 
of  bamboo  in  which  to  put  the  fresh  sap,  a  swab  to 
clean  the  bombon,  in  which  the  tuba  is  caught  as  it 
flows,  and  a  package  of  bitter  red  bark  reduced  to 
powder.  This  powder  is  thought  to  improve  the 
flavor  of  the  drink,  often  recommended  for  those  who 
are  recovering  from  severe  illness  on  account  of  its 
flesh-producing  properties.  The  fermented  product 
is  a  mild  intoxicant." 

Guimaras  would  seem  to  be  an  ideal  spot  for  the 
commercial  cultivation  of  the  cocoanut  and  the  pro- 
duction of  copra  or  oil.  It  has  a  pleasant  climate,  is 
in  close  proximity  to  a  labor  market  and  a  port,  and 
almost  the  entire  coast  of  the  island  is  paralleled  by  a 
fine  highway,  connecting  a  number  of  considerable 
towns. 


ILOILO  PROVINCE  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIES.       469 

To  return  to  Iloilo ;  it  is  far  from  being  an  attrac- 
tive place.  As  has  been  said,  the  streets  are  in  the 
worst  possible  condition,  especially  after  rain,  but  the 
visitor,  unless  he  is  fortunate  enough  to  enjoy  the 
use  of  a  private  vehicle,  must  walk,  for  there  are  no 
hacks.  The  greatest  number  of  vehicles  are  bullock- 
carts  engaged  in  carrying  sugar  between  the  ware- 
houses and  the  river  front.  The  public  buildings 
were  once  handsome,  and  the  public  square  sightly, 
but  they  have  been  neglected,  and  no  interest  seems 
to  be  displayed  in  anything  that  is  unconnected  with 
sugar.  There  are  a  few  tolerably  good  shops,  but 
the  quarters  of  the  lower  class  of  natives  have  been 
allowed  to  invade  every  part  of  the  town. 

ILOILO    PROVINCE   AND   ITS    INDUSTRIES. 

The  province  of  Iloilo,  consisting  of  the  southern 
half  of  Panay,  is  the  most  populous  in  the  Archi- 
pelago. In  former  days  it  exported  enormous  quan- 
tities of  sugar,  including  a  large  portion  of  the  Negros 
output,  besides  a  considerable  amount  of  hemp  and 
other  produce.  In  fact,  the  shipments  of  the  port  ex- 
ceeded those  of  Manila.  With  the  decline  of  the 
sugar  industry  there  has  been  a  falling  off  of  the  busi- 
ness, but  greater  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  culti- 
vation of  tobacco  and  the  output  has  increased  in 
quantity  and  quality  for  some  years  past.  Visayan 
tobacco  has  such  a  bad  name  that  it  can  find  a  retail 
market  outside  the  group  only  under  an  alias,  and  the 


470  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

shipments  from  Iloilo  to  the  Capital  are  made  up  into 
the  cheaper  brands  of  "Manila"  cigars,  which  sell  at 
the  rate  of  three  for  a  cent,  local  currency.  There 
is  no  good  reason  why  large  areas  in  the  Visayas 
should  not  grow  first-class  tobacco  under  improved 
methods  of  cultivation. 

In  and  about  Iloilo  weaving  is  a  prominent  indus- 
try and  a  large  trade  in  textiles  of  various  kinds  is 
carried  on  with  other  islands.  The  commoner  fabrics 
are  made  from  cotton  and  hemp  fiber,  although  some 
very  fine  cloths  are  often  woven  from  them.  How- 
ever, it  is  in  the  production  of  the  gauzy  materials 
of  pina  and  silk  that  the  Visayan  women  excel.  The 
work  is  all  done  upon  hand  looms,  and  it  is  an  ex- 
tremely slow  and  tedious  process,  some  of  the  material 
having  almost  the  delicate  texture  of  spider's  web. 
The  finished  product  in  bright,  well-harmonized  colors 
is  strikingly  beautiful.  Pina  and  jusi  fabrics  are 
admirably  adapted  for  summer  wear  in  the  eastern 
States  of  America,  and  they  should  come  into  use  with 
our  ladies.  Priced  by  the  yard,  the  best  of  these  pro- 
ductions are  rather  costly,  but  judged  as  one  does  a 
Kashmir  shawl,  by  the  amount  of  time  and  labor  ex- 
pended upon  it,  they  are  dirt  cheap. 

The  almost  squalid  aspect  of  the  low-lying  city 
upon  its  swamp-site,  is  somewhat  relieved  by  the  en- 
vironment. The  surrounding  country  is  beautiful  in 
the  extreme.  On  every  side  the  heavily-wooded  land 
rises  in  gradually  increasing  eminences  until  it  cul- 


ILOILO  PROVINCE  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIES.       471 

minates  in  lofty  mountains  in  the  background. 
Nearby  are  Jaro  and  Molo,  picturesque  little  towns 
where  some  of  the  Iloilo  merchants  have  bungalows. 

LOOKOUTS    FOR    PIEATES. 

At  Jaro,  the  Bishop  of  the  diocese  has  a  summer 
palace  and  the  village  contains  a  very  small,  but  hand- 
some, cathedral.  In  the  vicinity  of  Iloilo  one  may  see 
an  old-time  watch-tower,  such  as  is  commonly  found 
in  or  near  the  Visayan  coast  towns.  These  circular 
stone  buildings,  in  the  form  of  huge  pepper  castors, 
are  reminders  of  the  days  when  the  islands  were  the 
constant  scenes  of  Moro  outrages.  At  such  seasons  as 
were  favorable  to  navigation,  a  lookout  was  main- 
tained day  and  night  from  these  vantage  points  for  the 
dreaded  pirates,  and  at  the  first  appearance  of  their 
approach  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  or  village  were 
warned  to  take  to  the  hills.  Cattle  were  driven  off, 
if  possible,  and  as  much  portable  property  as  could 
be  carried  was  taken  along,  so  that  if  sufficient  time 
had  been  allowed,  there  would  be  little  left  for  the 
Moros  but  to  fire  the  houses  and  set  sail  again.  But 
if,  as  quite  often  happened,  the  inhabitants  were  taken 
unawares,  then  was  their  fate  unhappy  in  the  ex- 
treme, for  the  southern  pirates  knew  no  pity  on 
these  expeditions.  The  village  would  be  sacked  and 
the  pick  of  the  men  and  women  would  be  carried 
into  slavery,  whilst  the  remainder  would  be  put  to  the 
sword  in  sheer  wanton  cruelty. 


472  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

In  years  gone  by  Mindoro  was  one  of  the  most  pros- 
perous of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  Large  areas 
were  cultivated  by  the  Tagal  inhabitants,  who  not 
only  raised  enough  to  furnish  bountifully  their  own 
needs,  but  helped  to  supply  the  wants  of  their  neigh- 
bors. Their  extraordinary  prosperity  and  success 
were,  however,  the  undoing  of  the  Mindoro  islanders, 
whose  inviting  condition  aroused  the  cupidity  of  the 
Moro  pirates.  Time  and  again  the  island  was  raided, 
its  towns  laid  waste,  and  its  able-bodied  men  and 
young  women  carried  into  captivity.  At  last  it  be- 
gan to  be  shunned  as  a  place  accursed  and  its  fields 
of  grain  reverted  to  wilderness. 

THE  RELAPSE  OF  MINDORO  INTO  WILDERNESS. 

Mindoro  is  now  the  chief  refuge  of  criminals  from 
the  neighboring  islands  who,  once  they  gain  the  moun- 
tains of  the  interior,  are  able  to  defy  pursuit.  These 
outlaws,  called  tulisanes,  were  more  or  less  trouble- 
some in  most  of  the  northern  provinces,  where  they 
formed  organized  bands  under  recognized  leaders  and 
terrorized  large  districts.  Although  these  men  were 
criminals  of  the  worst  type,  many  of  them  with  mur- 
ders to  answer  for,  the  Spaniards  made  no  serious 
efforts  to  wipe  them  out.  In  fact,  if  the  Civil  Guard 
caught  one  of  these  banditti  and  lodged  him  in  jail 
he  invariably  contrived  to  bribe  his  way  to  liberty 
again.  So  well  was  this  known  that  some  officers 
of  the  provincial  constabulary  made  a  practice  of 


THE  SUGAR  FIELDS  OF  NEGROS.  473 

disposing  of  such  prisoners  before  the  municipal  head- 
quarters were  reached.  This  was  contrived  by  giv- 
ing the  tulisan  what  appeared  to  be  a  good  chance  to 
escape  and  shooting  him  in  his  tracks  before  he  had  a 
fair  start. 

THE  SUGAR  FIELDS  OF  NEGEOS. 

The  soil  of  Negros  is  mainly  devoted  to  sugar  cane, 
but  a  good  quality  of  Visayan  tobacco  is  also  raised 
and  cacao  of  an  excellent  quality.  The  sugar  crop 
of  the  island  is  the  only  one  in  the  Archipelago  that 
is  produced  on  anything  approaching  a  scientific  sys- 
tem. This  is  due  to  the  introduction  of  foreign  capi- 
tal. The  estates  are  not  large,  very  few  of  them  hav- 
ing a  capacity  in  excess  of  one  thousand  tons  a  year. 
Steam  and  hydraulic  machinery  is  employed  on  sev- 
eral of  them,  but  it  is  not  of  the  latest  pattern,  and 
the  entire  process,  far  in  advance  as  it  is  of  the  agri- 
cultural methods  customary  in  other  parts  of  the 
Archipelago,  is  capable  of  considerable  improvement. 
The  great  difficulty  under  which  the  planter  labors 
is  that  of  securing  sufficient  help.  High  rates  of 
wages  are  paid;  nevertheless,  it  frequently  happens 
that  the  proprietor  of  a  sugar  estate  sees  his  crop 
deteriorate  because  he  cannot  secure  the  hands  neces- 
sary to  harvest  it.  In  many  districts  it  is  requisite 
to  import  laborers,  and  in  all  cases  they  demand  con- 
siderable advances  before  they  will  enter  upon  their 
work.  The  best  men  are  apt  to  leave  after  they  have 
saved  the  trifle  which  is  a  competency  to  them. 


474  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Worcester  relates  an  incident  which  strikingly  illus- 
trates the  situation.  A  planter  had  a  field  hand  who, 
after  several  years  of  service,  had  become  almost  in- 
dispensable to  his  master.  One  day  he  unexpectedly 
announced  his  intention  of  ceasing  to  work.  To  the 
planter's  expostulations  the  man  replied:  "Senor, 
if  you  were  back  at  your  home  in  Andalusia  living 
in  a  house  as  fine  as  any  in  the  province ;  if  your  food 
and  clothing  were  not  only  as  good  as  any  of  your 
neighbors  could  boast,  but  were  all  that  you  yourself 
desired ;  if  you  had  money  enough  for  all  present 
and  future  needs — would  you  turn  your  back  up  to  a 
sun  as  hot  as  this  and  workT'  It  is  needless  to  add 
that  the  master  was  at  a  loss  for  a  rejoinder.  The 
native  has  no  incentive  to  work  hard  and  long,  and  in 
the  absence  of  it  there  is  no  reasonable  ground  for 
expecting  him  to  do  so.  Whether  his  happiness  will 
be  increased  by  arousing  his  ambition  is  an  open  ques- 
tion, but  it  is  certain  that  until  he  aspires  to  higher 
things  we  must  not  expect  to  see  him  exert  himself 
beyond  the  bounds  of  necessity.  It  may  be  that  when 
he  learns  that  increase  in  his  worldly  possessions  will 
not  bring  upon  him  burdensome  taxation  and  heavy 
contribution  to  the  Church,  he  may  appreciate  some  of 
the  at  present  unknown  advantages  of  money.  It  is  a 
strange  economic  condition,  in  which  a  planter  finds 
his  most  desirable  laborers  amongst  men  who  drink 
and  gamble,  because  they  will  work  harder  than  moral 
and  sober  natives  in  order  to  earn  money  to  satisfy 
their  vicious  inclinations. 


THE  NATURAL  BEAUTIES  OF  SAMAR.  475 

As  a  rule,  the  sugar  planters,  many  of  whom  are 
Europeans,  live  comfortably,  and  some  of  them  lux- 
uriously. There  are  many  handsome  houses  upon 
the  plantations.  They  have  good  furniture,  car- 
riages, and  horses,  and  are  generally  within  easy 
reach  of  congenial  neighbors.  In  the  halcyon  days  of 
sugar,  the  lot  of  the  sugar  planter  was  the  most  en- 
viable in  the  islands.  He  kept  open  house,  stinted 
himself  and  his  family  in  nothing,  ran  up  to  Manila 
once  or  twice  a  year,  and  sometimes  returned  to  Spain 
with  a  sufficient  fortune  to  enable  him  to  live  in  ease 
for  the  rest  of  his  life.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  think 
that  there  is  hope  of  something  like  the  old  times  re- 
turning to  the  planter  of  Negros. 

THE  NATUEAL  BEAUTIES  OF  SAMAR. 

Samar  has  an  area  about  twice  as  large  as  that  of 
Delaware  and  a  population  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
the  American  State.  The  island  boasts  some  of  the 
finest  scenery  in  the  Archipelago,  but  owing  to  the 
difficulties  of  travel  it  has  not  been  photographed  to 
anything  like  the  extent  of  less  attractive  sections. 

So  close  does  Samar  approach  to  Leyte  that  at  one 
point  the  Strait  of  San  Juanico  narrows  down  to  five 
hundred  yards.  Despite  the  proximity  of  the  main- 
lands the  passage  from  one  shore  to  the  other  is  an 
extremely  difficult  one.  The  Strait  is  beset  with 
numerous  tiny  islets,  around  which  the  rapid  current 
eddies  with  dangerous  effect,  precluding  the  employ- 


476  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ment  of  a  sailboat  and  taxing  the  skill  of  the  canoist 
to  the  utmost.  The  environment  is  unspeakably  pic- 
turesque. The  bluffs  along  the  Samar  coast  are 
pitted  with  low-lying  caves  in  which  have  been  found 
skeletons  of  human  beings  who  were  much  taller 
and  larger  than  any  of  the  present  inhabitants  of  the 
Archipelago.  These  finds  have  created  an  ethnologi- 
cal puzzle,  for  there  is  nothing  even  in  the  traditions 
of  the  islanders  hinting  at  any  other  than  the  races 
with  which  we  are  familiar,  and  the  aborigines  were 
dwarfs.  Had  there  been  a  temporary  settlement  of 
foreigners  here,  some  additional  traces  of  it  should 
exist,  and  if  we  look  for  an  explanation  in  ship- 
wrecked adventurers  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  their 
having  made  sepulchres  of  these  caves.  It  is  an  inter- 
esting question. 

The  Basey  Kiver  empties  at  this  point,  passing  un- 
der a  natural  arch  formed  by  two  limestone  rocks 
some  forty  feet  in  height.  In  front  opens  a  portal 
thirty-five  feet  high,  through  which  the  river  may  be 
seen.  In  the  wall  on  the  left  of  an  oval  court  thirty- 
seven  feet  above  the  water  is  the  entrance  to  a  cave 
which  penetrates  about  one  hundred  feet  inwards. 
Formerly  this  was  a  spacious  stalactite  cavern,  but  it 
is  now  partially  destroyed  by  the  falling  in  of  the 
rocks  which  formed  the  roof.  The  place  is  named 
the  "Cuevas  de  Sojoton." 

Another  beautiful  spot  is  within  five  miles  of  the 
town  of  Canaguaion,  where  the  Molo  River  issues  by 


CATBALOGAN.  477 

a  mouth  about  one  hundred  yards  wide  between  two 
high  black  rocks,  and  continues  through  a  series  of 
falls  for  a  distance  of  one-third  of  a  mile. 

A  considerable  portion  of  Samar  is  cultivated  in 
hemp,  sugar,  and  other  produce,  but  the  greater  part 
is  forest  containing  the  most  valuable  woods  of  the 
Archipelago.  There  are  few  roads,  and  travel  and 
traffic  are  carried  on  by  means  of  the  streams.  Every 
village,  not  immediately  upon  the  coast,  is  situated 
upon  a  waterway  navigable  by  native  boats ;  and 
almost  all  the  large  amount  of  produce  shipped  from 
the  island  finds  its  way  to  the  ports  by  boat. 

CATBALOGAN. 

Catbalogan,  the  capital,  is  a  little  town  of  not  much 
more  than  five  thousand  inhabitants,  and  very  much 
smaller  than  several  other  centres.  It  has,  however, 
a  large  trade  with  Manila  in  hemp,  sugar,  and  cocoa- 
nut.  As  in  every  commercial  centre,  Chinamen  are 
prominently  engaged  in  business  and  get  the  best  of 
the  natives  at  every  turn. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  town  is  raised  the  "isigud" 
or  fruit  of  San  Ignacio,  which  is  known  to  commerce 
as  the  "Catbalogan  seed."  It  is  claimed  that  this 
vegetable  is  a  specific  in  cholera  and  that  it  never 
fails  to  cure  that  disease.  The  Chinese  have  the  great- 
est faith  in  its  properties  and  take  the  entire  output, 
which  is  shipped  to  China.  Whether  the  efficacy  of 
the  seed  has  ever  been  put  to  scientific  test  the  writer 


478  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

is  unable  to  say,  but  if  half  its  alleged  virtue  can  be 
established  it  should  prove  a  boon  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Eastern  countries. 

THE  REMONTADOS,  A  REVERSION  TO  A  WILD  TYPE. 

The  interior  of  Samar  contains  many  remontados. 
These  are  natives,  who  having  found  the  "call  of  the 
wild"  irresistible,  have  forsaken  civilization  and  re- 
verted to  the  primitive  condition  of  their  fathers. 
They  are  not,  like  the  tulisanes,  criminals,  but  usually 
peaceable,  fairly  industrious  people,  who  form  small 
communities  and  engage  in  agricultural  pursuits. 
When  Christianized  natives  return  to  the  mountains 
they  generally  retrograde  rapidly,  frequently  marry- 
ing with  wild  tribes  and  lapsing  into  the  latter's  con- 
dition. 

MASBATE,  A  VAST  GRAZING  GROUND. 

Masbate  is  noted  for  its  herds  of  cattle,  horses, 
and  hogs.  Grazing  is  the  chief  industry,  and  up- 
wards of  one  thousand  head  of  cattle  are  shipped  from 
the  island  monthly,  the  greater  number  going  to 
Manila.  The  trade  has  thriven  since  the  American 
occupation,  and  is  capable  of  great  extension.  The 
system"  of  communication  is  much  the  same  as  in 
Samar,  but,  if  anything,  more  restricted.  There  are 
no  roads  worth  mentioning,  and  very  few  trails.  The 
animals  are  brought  to  port  on  the  hoof  and  shipped 
alive,  the  refrigerator  not  yet  being  a  feature  of 
Philippine  traffic. 


HISTORIC  CEBIT.  479 

The  natives  manufacture  palm  mats  that  are  justly 
celebrated  for  their  workmanship  and  the  durability 
of  their  colors.  They  are  superior  to  the  Japanese 
article  and  deserve  to  find  a  market  in  America. 

HISTORIC    CEBU. 

Cebu  is,  from  the  historical  point  of  view,  one  of 
the  most  interesting  places  in  the  Archipelago.  It 
was  here  that  the  Spaniards  made  their  first  settle- 
ment. Magellan  landed  on  the  Yth  of  April,  1521, 
at  the  capital  of  the  island,  occupying  the  site  upon 
which  the  present  town  stands.  A  hut  was  im- 
mediately constructed  and  consecrated.  Mass  was 
performed  in  it,  and  the  royal  family,  with  easy  in- 
difference, submitted  to  baptism.  It  is  said  that  Le- 
gaspi's  expedition  erected  a  church  upon  the  exact 
spot  where  this  event  took  place,  and  that  the  building 
still  stands  in  its  original  form,  but  this  is  probably 
a  fanciful  claim,  although  rendered  less  unlikely  by 
the  fact  that  Cebu  does  not  appear  to  be  subject  to 
the  severe  earthquake  shocks  that  have  devastated  the 
centres  of  Luzon. 

Less  than  a  month  after  landing,  Magellan  met 
death  on  the  little  mangrove-covered  coral  island  of 
Mactan,  which  lies  a  scant  mile  and  a  half  off  Cebu. 
After  the  loss  of  its  leader  the  expedition  fared  badly. 
King  Hamadar  of  the  island  treacherously  murdered 
a  number  of  their  party  at  a  banquet  and  the  re- 
mainder shortly  afterwards  set  sail  on  their  long  jour- 
ney back  to  Spain. 


480  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

In  1565  Legaspi  arrived  at  Cebu  and  despite 
opposition  contrived  to  pacify  the  inhabitants  and 
hold  his  ground.  A  fort  and  other  buildings  were 
constructed,  and  in  1670  the  place  was  declared  a 
city. 

THE  HOLY  CHILD  OF  CEBU. 

It  is  recorded  that  a  few  months  after  Legaspi 
landed  one  of  his  soldiers  found  a  wooden  image  of 
the  Christ  Child  on  the  seashore.  The  appearance  of 
the  image  was  deemed  miraculous,  and  the  Austin 
Friars  cherished  it  as  a  sacred  possession.  When 
the  Spaniards  took  possession  of  the  city  they  erected 
a  large  bamboo  cross.  Some  years  after,  a  fire  swept 
through  the  quarter  where  the  cross  stood,  but  it  ap- 
peared to  be  impervious  to  the  flames,  and  in  some 
peculiar  way  its  preservation  was  attributed  to  the 
image  referred  to  above.  The  cross  is  now  exhibited  in 
an  Oratory  adjacent  to  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Child 
of  Cebu.  The  first  church  dedicated  to  the  mystic 
image  was  destroyed  by  fire,  but  the  deity  escaped 
injury.  It  is  a  black,  unlovely-looking  thing,  some- 
what more  than  a  foot  high,  covered  with  silver  orna- 
ments that  have  been  donated  by  the  devout  from  time 
to  time.  It  is  exposed  to  public  view  at  intervals, 
when  the  occasion  is  one  of  extreme  pomp.  Its  feast 
is  held  on  the  20th  of  January,  when  pilgrims  from 
distant  parts  of  the  Archipelago  come  to  worship  at 
its  shrine  and  obtain  absolution  for  their  sins. 


CEBU  AS  A  SHIPPING  CENTRE.  481 

Cebu  is  a  port  of  considerable  importance,  with  a 
population  of  about  eighteen  thousand.  For  many 
years  it  ranked  next  to  Manila  in  commercial  stand- 
ing, brt  it  has  in  recent  times  been  overtaken  and 
passed  by  Iloilo.  Cebu  still  ships  large  quantities 
of  the  hemp  and  sugar  produced  by  the  Vis  ay  an  group 
of  islands,  but  its  own  share  in  the  production  is  not 
commensurate.  It  is  said  that  its  inhabitants,  whilst 
docile  and  well-disposed,  are  neither  energetic  nor 
enterprising. 

The  streets  of  the  city  are  wide  and  straight,  and 
it  has  some  handsome  buildings,  although  during  the 
Rebellion  it  was  bombarded  by  a  Government  vessel 
with  dire  effect. 

The  Episcopal  Palace  is  a  fine  structure  noted  for 
its  interior  decorations  and  some  unusually  good 
paintings.  The  Bishop's  See,  which  was  created  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  included  the  whole  of  the 
Visayan  Islands.  The  city  was  also  the  headquar- 
ters of  a  Governor,  and  a  General,  and,  in  the  old 
days,  the  social  life  of  the  place  was  very  different 
from  what  it  now  is.  Here,  as  elsewhere  in  the 
Visayas,  the  wholesale  business  is  in  the  hands  of 
Europeans,  the  largest  export  houses  being  British. 
The  retail  stores  are  conducted  almost  exclusively  by 
Chinamen,  the  few  exceptions  being  mestizos.  The 
full-blooded  native  has  absolutely  no  chance  in  com- 
petition with  these,  and  indeed,  he  seldom  displays 
any  ambition  for  competition.  The  Chinese  shops 

31 


482  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

along  the  Lutao  at  one  time  did  a  good  business,  and 
the  mestizo-Clamo  section  of  the  Parian  was  a  flourish- 
ing trading  quarter  until  after  the  bombardment  of 
1897. 

OLD   LANDMARKS    AND    HISTORIC    SITES. 

The  picturesque  fort  named  after  San  Vidal,  the 
patron  of  the  city,  commanded  the  harbor  in  the  days 
gone  by  and  is  one  of  the  landmarks  of  the  Archi- 
pelago best  deserving  preservation.  There  are  a  Cathe- 
dral and  several  churches,  %of  which  that  of  Santo 
Nino — the  Holy  Child — is  the  most  noted  and,  per- 
haps, the  most  attractive.  Cebu  shares  the  general 
healthfulness  of  the  island,  and  its  surroundings  add 
to  its  attraction  as  a  place  of  residence.  Round  about 
is  very  pretty  country,  and  a  range  of  hills  backs  the 
town.  The  island  has  been  denuded  of  most  of  its 
timber,  but  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile  and  capable 
of  much  more  extensive  cultivation  than  it  is  at  pres- 
ent put  to.  The  sugar  raised  here  will  compare  favor- 
ably with  the  best  production  of  Negros,  and  the 
Cebu  corn  is  superior  to  that  raised  in  any  other  part 
of  the  Archipelago.  The  natives  substitute  it  for  rice 
extensively,  and  this  is  one  of  the  few  places  in  the 
Philippines  where  they  have  learned  to  prefer  the 
former. 

Along  the  coast  of  the  island  is  found  the  famous 
Regardera  de  Cebu,  or  Venus  flower-basket,  the  only 
one  of  its  genus.  The  shores  are  renowned  for  their 


THE  HARDY  ISLANDERS  OF  BOHOL.  483 

rare  shells,  which  include  the  much-prized  Gloria 
Maris.  A  few  years  ago  many  a  splendid  bargain 
was  to  be  made  in  the  villages  along  the  littoral,  but 
the  natives  are  beginning  to  understand  something  of 
the  values  of  their  finds.  Still,  Cebu  offers  a  fine 
hunting  ground  for  the  conchologist. 

THE    HARDY    ISLANDEBS    OF    BOHOL. 

The  native  of  Bohol  displays  a  degree  of  energy 
and  initiative  which  is  rare  amongst  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Philippines.  The  first  uprising  of  consequence 
occurred  in  this  island  in  1622,  when  the  people  tired 
of  the  exactions  of  the  State  and  the  tyranny  of  the 
Church.  It  was  put  down  by  troops  from  Cebu,  but 
in  1744  similar  causes  led  to  another  revolt,  which 
was  followed  by  a  condition  of  practical  independence 
on  the  part  of  the  Bohol  islanders  for  a  period  of 
thirty-five  years. 

The  people  of  Bohol  are  famous-  for  their  courage 
and  the  expert  use  of  their  favorite  weapon,  the  lance. 
The  Moros  learned  to  respect  their  skill  and  prowess, 
and  although  the  island  was  near  at  hand  to  the 
Mindanao  strongholds  of  the  pirates,  it  was  visited 
by  them  much  less  frequently  than  more  distant 
points. 

No  doubt  the  inhabitants  of  Bohol  owe  much  to  the 
disadvantage  of  their  situation.  Frequent  encounters 
with  the  Moros  and  the  necessity  for  constant  pre- 
paredness developed  and  fostered  military  qualities. 


484  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  soil  of  the  island  lacks  the  responsive  character 
general  in  the  Philippines,  and  the  Bohol  cultivator 
was  early  forced  to  greater  activity  than,  for  instance, 
his  neighbor  on  the  other  side  of  the  Sea  of  Cebu. 
However,  with  careful  tillage  a  very  creditable  quan- 
tity of  various  vegetable  products  is  raised,  sufficient, 
in  fact,  to  leave  a  respectable  surplus  for  export.  A 
great"  deal  of  weaving  of  a  good  sort  is  done  in  the 
towns,  a  specialty  being  a  peculiar  kind  of  blanket 
and  a  rush  mat  called  "ticay."  In  fact,  they  are  a 
very  busy  people,  and  fully  deserving  of  the  good  for- 
tune which  is  likely  to  overtake  them  in  the  near 
future,  for  Bohol  has  some  excellent  timber  lands, 
which,  though  limited  in  extent,  contain  valuable 
material,  and  the  conditions  are  favorable  to  working 
them.  These  lands,  with  the  coal  fields  and  iron 
deposits,  are  bound  to  attract  enterprise  and  capital 
before  long. 

THE   ISLAND  OF  SIQUIJOR. 

Bohol  has  a  notable  dependency  in  the  Island  of 
Siquijor,  which  lies  to  the  south.  The  people  tell  a 
story  of  its  origin  that  is  probably  not  far  from  the 
truth.  They  say  that  one  day  a  dense  cloud  appeared 
over  the  spot  where  the  island  now  stands.  Out  of 
the  cloud  issued  thunder  and  lightning  for  several 
hours,  and  the  next  morning  there  was  Siquijor,  which 
they  proceeded  to  occupy  as  soon  as  it  had  cooled  off. 
This  was,  of  course,  long  ago,  but  the  event  has  lived 
in  tradition. 


DELINQUENT  TAXPAYERS.  485 

Siquijor  enjoys  the  remarkable  distinction  of  being 
the  most  populous  section  of  its  size  in  the  Archi- 
pelago; remarkable  because  there  is  absolutely  noth- 
ing in  the  condition  of  the  island  to  explain  the  fact. 
The  soil  is  almost  barren,  and  the  inhabitants  find  it 
difficult  to  gain  a  subsistence  from  it.  The  only  thing 
that  appears  to  grow  readily  is  a  fair  quality  of 
tobacco,  perhaps  the  best  produced  in  the  Visayas, 
where  it  is  all  more  or  less  poor.  There  is  not  much 
of  a  market  for  it,  however,  and  it  generally  passes 
into  the  hands  of  Chinese  traders  in  exchange  for 
cotton  cloth.  The  entire  island  is  a  coral  structure 
with  a  very  thin  and  reluctant  layer  of  soil  upon  it. 
Nevertheless,  its  area  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-six 
square  miles  contains  a  population  of  upwards  of 
forty  thousand.  Some  of  these  souls  make  a  precari- 
ous living  by  collecting  beche  de  mer  and  edible  birds' 
nests,  and  a  considerable  number  are  engaged  in  the 
production  of  sinamay,  a  rough  hemp  fabric  which  is 
used  for  clothing  by  the  poorer  classes. 

THE    FATE   OF  DELINQUENT    TAXPAYERS   UNDER   SPAIN. 

Worcester  spent  some  time  on  the  island  hunting 
bird  specimens.  He  says  that  plenty  of  men  were 
willing  to  work  for  him  at  the  rate  of  five  cents  a 
day,  and  not  a  few  asked  only  for  food  in  compensa- 
tion for  their  services.  Before  he  left  he  was  wit- 
ness of  the  harsh  measures  which  the  Spanish  Gov- 
ernment habitually  dealt  out  to  delinquent  com- 
munities. 


486  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

"The  taxes  due  from  that  poverty-stricken  town 
(Siquijor,  the  capital  of  the  island)  amounted  to 
some  $5,000  per  annum.  Cholera  had  recently  devas- 
tated the  island ;  the  crops  had  failed,  and  for  several 
years  it  had  been  utterly  impossible  for  the  cabezas  10 
get  any  such  sum  out  of  the  half-starved  inhabitants. 
There  was  a  shortage  of  $7,000,  and  a  commission 
had  come  down  from  Bohol  to  try  to  raise  the  money. 
Failing  in  this,  they  had  seized  the  cabezas,  confis- 
cated their  lands,  houses,  and  cattle,  and  were  about 
to  deport  them  because  they  were  guilty  of  the  crime 
of  not  being  rich  enough  to  pay  other  people's  debts ! 
Forty-four  men  were  torn  from  their  homes  and 
dragged  away  into  exile,  while  those  dependent  upon 
them  were  left  to  shift  for  themselves  as  best  they 
could. 

"The  officer  in  charge  of  the  cabezas  informed  me 
that  they  would  have  the  privilege  of  working  out  the 
debts  of  their  constituents  at  the  munificent  salary  of 
six  cents  per  day,  from  which  the  expense  of  their 
food  and  clothing  would  be  deducted." 

LEYTE. 

Leyte  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  cultivated  sec- 
tions in  the  Archipelago.  One-half  of  its  area,  equal 
to  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  hectares,  is  under 
cultivation,  mostly  in  hemp,  the  remainder  of  the 
island  being  mountains  or  grazing  land.  A  consid- 
erable amount  of  sugar  cane  is  raised,  but  Leyte  is 


LEYTE.  487 

essentially  a  hemp  district.  In  1899  the  exports  of 
the  fibre  approximated  one  million  piculs.  The  peo- 
ple convert  a  great  deal  of  the  product  into  fabrics 
of  native  wear  and  make  from  it  the  cabo  negro,  or 
black  boat  cable.  Boat-building  is  quite  an  industry 
with  them.  They  turn  out  all  kinds  of  craft — from 
the  dugout  to  the  hundred-ton  schooner.  The  larger 
vessels  are  constructed  at  the  shipyards  of  Tacloban, 
which  employ  hundreds  of  workmen  constantly. 
These  Leyte  shipbuilders  display  no  mean  degree  of 
skill,  and  their  product  is  in  demand  amongst  the 
islands  of  the  group. 


MINDANAO  AND  SULU. 


XIII. 

MINDANAO    AND    SULU. 

The  Muhammadan  Invasion — The  Social  Organization  of  the 
Muhammadan  Malays — The  Present  Moro  Tribes — Dress 
and  Manners  of  the  Moros — The  Moro  Warrior  Presents 
a  Bizarre  Appearance — The  Jurarnentados — Cruelties  of 
the  Datos — The  Moro  is  Not  a  Model  Muhammadan — 
The  Moro  Version  of  the  Story  of  the  Flood — Christ 
and  Muhammad  in  Moro  Legend — Basilan  and  the 
Yakan  Moros — The  Strange  Sway  of  a  Foreigner  Over 
a  Moro  Community — The  Masterful  Rule  of  Arolas — 
Modern  Sulu — The  Moro  is  a  Man  of  the  Sea — The 
Origin  of  the  Pearl — The  Mother-of-Pearl  Industry  of 
Sulu. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  time  and  manner  of  the 
occupancy  of  the  southern  islands  by  the  Muhamma- 
dan Malays.  According  to  Foreman,  a  former  chief 
of  Borneo,  named  Tindig,  with  his  followers,  took 
possession  of  Sulu  Island  about  the  time  of  the  Span- 
ish conquest  of  the  Philippines.  He  appears  to  have 
been  a  famous  warrior,  from  whom  the  later  Sultans 
of  Sulu  were  proud  to  claim  descent. 

Tindig  had  been  accompanied  by  his  cousin,  Adasa- 
olan,  who  made  his  first  settlement  upon  the  island 
of  Basilan  and  later  formed  an  alliance  with  King 
Dimasangcay,  of  Mindanao,  whose  daughter  he  mar- 
ried. Dimasangcay,  and  doubtless  his  entire  fam- 
ily, embraced  the  Muhammadan  faith. 

(491) 


492  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Adasaolan's  ambition  grew  with  his  increasing  good 
fortune,  and  he  conceived  the  idea  of  annexing  the 
kingdom  of  his  cousin.  In  this  project  he  had  the 
support  of  the  Mindanao  monarch,  and  their  com- 
bined forces  made  an  attack  upon  Sulu.  The  expedi- 
tion failed,  and  after  the  retirement  of  the  invaders 
Tindig  prepared  to  retaliate  in  similar  manner. 
Some  years  previously  he  had  established  an  entente 
with  the  Spaniards,  and  now  he  repaired  to  Manila 
to  seek  their  aid  against  his  kinsman,  and  secured  a 
promise  of  assistance.  Relying  upon  the  expected  re- 
inforcement, but  lacking  experience  of  Spanish  tardi- 
ness, Tindig  put  his  enterprise  on  foot.  In  the  battle 
that  ensued  the  Sulu  chieftain  was  defeated  and 
slain.  After  the  event  the  armed  boats  from  Manila 
arrived  and,  finding  the  issue  settled,  returned,  doubt- 
less with  a  sense  of  duty  done. 

THE   MUIIAMMADAN   INVASION. 

Sulu  remained  independent,  but  Adasaolan  made 
alliances  with  the  chieftains  of  Borneo,  and  there 
was  soon  an  influx  of  Muhammadans  to  Mindanao 
and  the  Sulu  Archipelago. 

It  has  been  stated  how,  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  Estevan  Rodriguez,  under  a  grant  from  the 
Spanish  Government,  attempted  the  conquest  of  Min- 
danao, and  how  the  consequence  was  like  to  the  dis- 
turbance of  a  hornet's  nest.  By  that  time  the  king- 
doms of  Mindanao  and  Sulu  were  on  the  most  friendly 


MUHAMMADAN  MALAYS.  493 

terms,  and  their  future  piratical  ventures  were  fre- 
quently conducted  in  co-operation.  For  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years  every  coast  of  the  Colony  was  ravaged 
by  the  marauders,  who  even  extended  their  incur- 
sions to  the  Bay  of  Manila.  During  this  period  per- 
haps nothing  militated  more  seriously  against  the  de- 
velopment of  the  islands  than  this  incessant  scourge, 
which  the  authorities  were  utterly  unable  to  repress 
until  after  they  brought  gunboats  into  play. 

The  Moors,  or  Moros,  comprise  a  number  of  orig- 
inally distinct  tribes  which  have  since  intermingled 
and  which  have  always  been  allied  by  the  common 
bond  of  religion.  Traces  of  Bornean  Dyaks,  Bayos 
of  Celebes,  and  Arabs,  are  frequently  seen.  There  are 
also  evidences  of  crossings  with  Spaniards  and  Chi- 
nese. In  fact,  the  practice  of  carrying  off  women 
from  the  scenes  of  their  widespread  depredations  and 
of  cohabiting  with  them  has  made  the  Moros  of  the 
Philippines  one  of  the  most  mixed  of  all  Eastern 
races. 

THE    SOCIAL    ORGANIZATION     OF     THE     MUHAMMADAN 
MALAYS. 

"Their  essentially  feudal  institutions/7  says  Reclus, 
"caused  the  whole  social  organization  to  rest  on 
piracy.  By  the  side  of  the  sultans  were  the  almost 
equally  powerful  vassals,  the  datu,  each  of  whom, 
with  the  reservation  of  homage  due  to  his  suzerain, 
became  proprietor  of  the  land  conquered  and  the 


494  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

wealth  plundered  by  his.  retainers.  The  tao  maraliay, 
or  good  men,  that  is  the  free  warriors,  accompanied 
them  on  their  predatory  expeditions,  while  the  sacope, 
or  lack-land  class,  were  reduced  to  a  state  of  serfdom." 

There  can  be  little  question  that  but  for  the  Spanish 
occupation,  this  condition  would  have  ultimately  ob- 
tained throughout  the  Philippines  with  a  universal 
acknowledgment  of  the  Muhammadan  religion. 

The  old  feudal  tenure  is  fast  relaxing  its  hold 
upon  the  people,  and  the  Moro  nation  presents  the 
problem  of  a  number  of  petty  chiefs  who  are  breaking 
away  from  allegiance  to  their  over-lords,  but  at  the 
same  time  display  no  disposition  to  accept  a  new  mas- 
ter kindly.  Eef erring  to  the  decline  of  the  sultanates, 
Dr.  Barrow  says:  "To-day  the  Sultan  of  Mindanao 
is  an  exile  from  the  Rio  Grande,  with  his  home  at 
Dumanquilas  Bay.  His  prestige  is  gone,  he  is  poor 
to  the  point  of  destitution,  and  he  will  never  regain 
the  position  occupied  by  his  predecessors.  Such  seems 
to  be  the  fate  of  the  sultanate  among  these  tribes  when- 
ever the  native  power  meets  formidable  opposition 
and  falls,  as  it  invariably  must,  into  the  hands  of  a 
weak  and  dissipated  prince.  The  present  sultanate 
of  Sulu  is  rapidly  approaching  the  state  of  weakness 
and  decay  represented  by  the  sultanate  of  Mindanao, 
and,  unless  supported  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, will  not  be  able  much  longer  to  command  the 
obedience  of  the  Moros  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago.  The 
days  of  the  Moro  power  are  past.  For  three  centuries 


THE  PRESENT  MORO  TRIBES.  495 

they  defied  the  European  and  carried  war  with  im- 
punity into  his  territory.  For  generation  after  gen- 
eration the  Spaniard  stood  purely  on  the  defensive 
and  sought  by  treaty  and  subsidy  to  win  where  he 
could  not  conquer. 

"There  must  have  been  some  barbaric  splendor 
about  these  old  pirate  states  when  at  the  height  of 
their  power  and  daring.  To  see  how  they  could  im- 
press Europeans  one  should  read  the  notable  volume 
of  Captain  Forrest,  'A  Voyage  to  New  Guinea.'  Cap- 
tain Forrest  visited  and  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Sultan  of  Maguindanao  (Mindanao)  in  1776. 
There  is  something  almost  melancholy  about  their 
decadence.  Theirs  were  the  only  political  achieve- 
ments of  any  consequence  ever  made  by  the  people  of 
the  Philippines,  but  their  passing,  none  the  less, 
marks  a  gain  for  civilization." 

THE    PRESENT    MORO    TEIBES. 

At  the  present  time  the  Malanao  Moros,  or  Moros 
of  the  Lake,  are  the  most  numerous  tribe  in  Min- 
danao. Their  stronghold  is  the  district  of  Lake 
Lanao,  around  which  their  villages  are  thickly  clus- 
tered. They  are  believed  to  number  not  far  short 
of  one  hundred  thousand. 

The  Maguindanao  Moros,  whose  name  has  prac- 
tically the  same  signification  as  that  of  the  first  named 
tribe,  number  about  fifty  thousand,  and  are  to  be 
found  mainly  in  the  vicinity  of  Cottabato.  This  name 


496  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

has  long  been  used  to  designate  the  warlike  Muham- 
madan  tribes  of  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande.  They 
were  almost  the  first  Moros  with  whom  the  Spaniards 
came  in  contact  and  their  name  passed  to  the  island 
itself.  Emigrants  from  this  tribe  peopled  the  dis- 
tricts of  Zamboango  and  Davao.  In  the  interior  of 
Zamboango  are  the  Kalibuganes,  who  are  derived  from 
a  mixture  with  the  Subanos. 

The  Sulu  Moros  are  found  mainly  in  the  group  of 
islands  of  that  name,  where  they  form  the  dominant 
element  in  the  population.  Where  they  have  emi- 
grated, even  in  small  numbers,  their  strong  person- 
ality and  aggressiveness  have  had  a  marked  influence. 

The  Yakan  tribe  is  practically  restricted  to  the  in- 
terior of  the  island  of  Basilan,  the  coasts  being  occu- 
pied by  the  Samals. 

The  Samals  are  rarely  located  elsewhere  than  on 
the  seashore.  They  predominate  in  the  Tawi  Tawi 
group,  which  was  the  most  inaccessible  stronghold  of 
the  pirates  of  whom  this  tribe  was  the  most  active  and 
furnished  by  far  the  greater  number.  They  are  scat- 
tered throughout  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  and  there  are 
numbers  of  them  in  the  Zamboango  district.  The 
Samals,  who  represent  the  latest  Moro  immigration, 
are  superior  to  the  other  tribes  in  force  and  intelli- 
gence. 

What  differences  exist  between  the  various  tribes 
seem  to  be  mainly  the  marks  of  varying  stages  of 
removal  from  savagery,  the  highest  degree  being 


DRESS  AND  MANNERS  OF  THE  MORO.    497 

represented  by  the  Samals,  and  the  lowest  by  the 
boat-dwelling  Bajaus. 

DRESS    AND    MANNERS    OF    THE    MOROS. 

Physically  the  Moros  are  the  superiors  of  the  Fili- 
pinos, being  taller  and  more  robust ;  in  fact,  the  Moro 
is  often  stocky  and  muscular.  A  peculiarity  is  the 
development  of  the  feet  and  toes,  due  to  the  use  to 
which  they  are  put  in  many  daily  occupations.  The 
Moro  uses  his  toes  as  freely  and  effectively  as  we  do 
our  fingers,  and  finds  it  much  more  convenient  to 
pick  an  object  from  the  ground  with  them  than  to 
stoop  down  and  raise  it  with  his  hand.  When  he 
climbs  a  tree  the  rope  is  grasped  by  the  feet,  and 
when  sailing  a  boat  he  will  take  a  couple  of  turns  with 
the  halyard  round  the  big  toe.  The  Moro  dress  will 
distinguish  him  at  once  from  the  native  of  the  north. 
The  former  wears  no  shirt  in  or  out  of  his  breeches. 
Sometimes  the  dress  consists  of  nothing  more  than 
the  sarong,  a  voluminous  cloth  tied  around  the  waist 
and  falling  to  the  calves  of  the  legs.  What  may  be 
termed  the  national  costume  consists  of  a  close-fitting, 
short  jacket,  and  trousers  loose  in  the  seat  and  very 
tight  on  the  legs,  reaching  to  the  ankles.  These  gar- 
ments are  often  as  bright  and  vari-colored  as  Joseph's 
coat,  and  are  ornamented  with  a  great  number  of 
brass  buttons.  Sometimes  straw  hats  of  extraordi- 
nary shapes  are  worn,  but  the  common  headgear  is  the 
turban. 

32 


498  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

A  Moro  chief  in  the  full  panoply  of  war  is  rather  a 
grotesque  object  to  the  unaccustomed  eye.  Upon  his 
head  is  a  brass  helmet,  into  which  is  stuck  the  largest 
and  stiffest  feather  procurable.  In  order  to  secure  the 
headpiece  a  cloth,  perhaps  the  turban,  is  lapped 
around  it  and  tied  under  the  chin,  giving  the  warrior 
the  appearance  of  suffering  from  a  severe  attack  of 
neuralgia.  The  virile  effect  of  a  steel  cuirass  is 
somewhat  mitigated  by  the  gaudy  feminine  skirt 
which  depends  from  the  waists  to  the  knees. 

THE  MOEO  WAREIOE  PRESENTS  A  BIZARRE  APPEARANCE. 

Most  Moro  men  carry  a  short  dagger  stuck  in  the 
sarong,  or  at  the  breeches  belt,  but  if  the  individual 
is  a  noble  the  Tcris  takes  the  place  of  the  former 
weapon. 

The  dress  of  the  women  is  made  up  of  a  bodice 
fitting  close  to  the  skin  and  a  baggy  bifurcated  skirt. 
The  jabul  is  a  long  scarf  which  is  thrown  over  the 
head  and  draped  about  the  body.  It  may  be  a  modi- 
fied survival  of  the  veil  worn  by  Muhammadan  women 
in  Arabia  and  other  countries.  Neither  sex  wears 
shoes  as  a  rule.  The  women  tie  their  hair  up  in  all 
manner  of  fantastic  knots,  while  the  men  leave  it 
loose.  Children  generally  go  naked  at  home,  but 
wear  the  sarong  in  public. 

Like  the  Filipino,  the  Moro  bathes  frequently ;  in 
fact,  he  spends  a  large  proportion  of  his  time  in  the 
water  when  conditions  are  favorable,  but  it  would 


THE  JURAMENTADOS.  499 

seem  to  be  from  love  of  aquatic  exercise  rather  than 
from  any  desire  for  cleanliness,  for  their  dwellings 
and  surroundings  are  filthy. 

The  Moro  never  goes  abroad  without  a  weapon  of 
some  sort.  The  Jcris,  or  barong,  the  arms  of  warfare, 
are  the  most  commonly  carried,  but  sometimes  a 
spear,  or  a  club  not  unlike  a  boomerang,  is  the  sub- 
stitute. The  baron g  is  a  sword  with  an  oval  double- 
edged  blade,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long, 
graduating  to  a  point.  To  decapitate  a  man  with  one 
clean  stroke  is  no  great  feat  for  a  Moro  warrior.  The 
kris  is  straight,  or  wavy,  the  former  being  used  for 
cutting  and  the  latter  for  thrusting.  A  weapon  is 
prized  for  the  number  of  persons  it  has  killed,  and 
one  that  has  an  established  record  of  a  great  many 
deaths  to  its  credit  will  bring  a  high  price.  Rifles 
are  very  highly  prize  by  the  Moros,  but,  fortunately, 
they  have  always  had  great  difficulty  in  obtaining 
them. 

The  Moro  loves  to  close  with  his  enemy,  and  his 
weapons  are  all  adapted  to  hand-to-hand  fighting.  It 
follows  that  he  is  a  very  dangerous  opponent  if  he 
gets  within  arm's  length,  but  against  troops  furnished 
with  firearms  he  has  little  chance  in  the  open. 

THE   JUKAMENTADOS. 

The  jummentado  occasionally  furnishes  an  exam- 
ple of  the  Moro's  capacity  for  doing  execution  in  a 
crowd.  The  juramentado  is  a  Muhammadan  who 


500  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

has  taken  a  religious  vow  to  devote  his  life  to  the 
extinction  of  as  many  Christians  as  possible.  The 
pandita  works  the  devotee  up  to  the  requisite  pitch 
of  emotional  excitement  and,  perhaps,  an  extra  large 
dose  of  opium  puts  the  finishing  touch  to  his  fanatical 
frenzy.  Assured  that  if  he  dies  in  the  act  of  taking 
the  life  of  a  Christian  all  the  joys  of  Paradise  will  be 
his,  the  juramentado  sets  out  to  find  as  many  victims 
as  opportunity  may  afford.  Sometimes  a  band  of 
these  devoted  murderers  act  together,  and  in  that 
case  they  are  likely  to  choose  some  gathering  of  a 
village,  such  as  the  celebration  of  a  feast  day,  for  the 
occasion  of  their  onslaught.  When  half  a  dozen  of 
them  contrive  to  get  into  a  throng  of  this  kind,  which 
is  very  seldom,  of  course,  for  they  are  not  permitted 
in  the  Christian  towns  with  their  arms,  the  number 
they  will  slay  in  a  few  minutes  is  almost  incredible. 
Soldiers  cannot  put  them  out  of  action  before  they 
have  done  great  damage  to  their  ranks.  It  is  told 
how  five  juramentados  charged  a  company  of  Spanish 
troops  armed  with  rifles  and  killed,  or  badly  wounded, 
nineteen  of  their  number  before  they  themselves  were 
slain. 

The  Moro  believes  that  he  is  a  very  superior  being, 
and  looks  upon  all  other  natives  with  the  utmost 
disdain.  Religious  difference  may  have  a  great  deal 
to  do  with  this  feeling,  but  the  foundation  of  it  proba- 
bly lies  in  the  superior  courage  of  the  Muhammadan 
tribes.  They  are  densely  ignorant,  very  few  of  them 


CRUELTIES  OF  THE  DATOS.  501 

being  able  to  read  or  write.  The  knowledge  of  their 
panditas,  or  priests,  is  of  a  rudimentary  character  and 
generally  limited  to  a  smattering  of  the  "Kitab"  as 
they  term  the  Kuran.  It  is  doubtful  if  one  of  them 
can  read  it  in  the  original  Arabic. 

CRUELTIES  OF  THE  DATOS. 

The  datos,  and  warrior  class,  refrained  entirely 
from  anything  like  labor.  The  slaves  and  women  did 
all  the  work  and  supplied  all  the  wants  of  the  master 
of  the  establishment.  As  a  general  thing  their  slaves 
do  not  appear  to  have  fared  badly,  although  the  datos 
were  capable  of  the  worst  barbarities  on  occasion  and 
treated  attempts  to  escape  with  the  utmost  severity. 
Dato  Uto,  a  representative  of  the  latter-day  Moros, 
was  notorious  for  the  refinement  of  the  cruelties  he 
practiced  upon  his  slaves.  Those  who  were  caught  in 
an  attempt  to  escape  had  the  tendons  of  their  legs 
cut  below  the  knees  so  that  they  could  never  after 
walk  except  with  great  difficulty.  Others  he  caused 
to  be  bound  naked  to  trees,  where  they  would  be 
exposed  to  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  by  day  and  the 
stings  of  mosquitoes  and  other  insects  at  night.  Death 
within  forty-eight  hours  was  the  frequent  result  of 
this  treatment. 

Moros  of  all  classes,  from  the  sultan  to  the  sacope, 
are  born  thieves.  They  rob  whenever  opportunity 
presents  itself  and  from  neighbors  or  kinsmen  as 
readily  as  from  strangers,  as  much  apparently  for 


502  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  pleasure  derived  from  the  act  as  from  desire  for 
the  object  stolen. 

THE    MORO   IS   NOT   A   MODEL    MUHAMMADAN. 

The  Moro  is  far  from  being  an  orthodox  Muham- 
madan;  indeed  the  Moslem  of  civilization  would 
hardly  recognize  him  as  a  co-religionist.  The  Moro 
falls  very  short  of  living  up  to  the  dictates  of  the 
Kuran  and  frequently  violates  its  stern  prohibi- 
tion against  indulgence  in  strong  drink.  Toward 
strangers  the  Mussalmin  of  the  Philippines  have  al- 
ways displayed  the  greatest  reticence  regarding  the 
particulars  of  their  religious  belief,  and  investigators 
generally  meet  with  a  flat  refusal  to  impart  informa- 
tion, or  else  are  put  off  with  a  recital  of  a  fanciful 
nature.  Worcester  appears  to  have  been  unusually 
fortunate  in  this  respect.  He  contrived  to  gain  the 
confidence  of  the  Minister  of  Justice  of  the  sultanate 
of  Mindanao,  "a  very  intelligent  man,  who  looked  as 
if  he  had  white  blood  in  his  veins."  During  a  suc- 
cession of  visits,  in  which  the  chief  attraction  was 
"a  microscope  and  sundry  copies  of  illustrated 
papers,"  this  person  stated  that  the  Moros  believe  that 
there  is  but  one  universe  and  one  God.  He  is  om- 
nipresent, omnipotent,  and  omniscient,  and  his  form 
is  that  of  our  thoughts.  The  air  above  us  and  the 
space  beneath  the  earth  are  inhabited  by  spirits.  Ani- 
mals have  spirits,  but  they  expire  with  the  death  of 
the  creature,  whilst  the  soul  of  man  lives  on  forever. 


THE  MORO  RELIGIOUS  BELIEF.  603 

It  enters  the  body  through  a  hole  in  the  top  of  the 
skull,  contrived  for  that  purpose,  and  leaves  it 
through  the  same  aperture.  During  life  the  soul 
permeates  the  entire  body,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  the  whole  structure  is  sensitive.  Some  panditas 
maintain  that  after  death  the  soul  immediately  re- 
pairs to  the  presence  of  God;  others  that  it  goes  be- 
neath the  earth  to  rest  in  oblivion  until  the  judgment 
day.  The  soul  of  a  bad  man  is  eventually  consigned 
to  hell,  where  he  suffers  torment  regulated  according 
to  the  character  of  his  misdeeds.  The  offending  mem- 
ber of  the  body  is  the  seat  of  pain.  There  is  no  fire 
in  hell.  "Where  would  the  fuel  come  from?"  In 
the  course  of  time  the  wicked  expiate  their  sins  and 
are  taken  into  heaven.  According  to  some  priests 
evil  brings  its  own  punishment  in  mental  and  physical 
suffering  upon  the  earth,  and  atonement  comes  before 
death. 

The  purged  soul  will  have  the  same  form  as  the 
body,  but  will  be  like  "gold  and  diamonds/7  that  is, 
glorified.  Certain  Moro  theologists  teach  that  the 
souls  of  the  good  wait  in  the  air,  and  those  of  the  bad 
in  the  earth,  until  the  final  reckoning  at  the  end  of 
the  world.  At  that  time,  all  souls  will  be  carried  up 
by  a  great  wind  to  the  Mount  of  Calvary,  where  they 
will  be  confronted  by  Gabriel,  Michael,  and  the 
Weigher,  who  will  place  each  one  in  the  scales.  Souls 
heavy  with  sin  will  be  sent  to  hell. 


504  THS  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Moros  know  all  the  prominent  characters  of 
the  Old  Testament,  "Ibrahim,"  "No,"  "Mosa," 
"Baud,"  "Yakub,"  "Sulaiman,"  and  the  rest,  and 
have  woven  around  some  of  them  marvelous  tales  of 
fabulous  adventure.  Like  all  people,  even  the  most 
primitive,  they  have  their  story  of  the  flood. 

THE   MORO   VERSION   OF   THE   STORY   OF   THE    FLOOD. 

When  the  forty  days  and  nights  of  rain  set  in, 
Noah  and  his  family  went  into  a  box,  taking  with 
them  one  pair  of  each  sort  of  bird  and  beast.  People 
who  neglected  the  opportunity  to  join  the  patriarch 
were  overtaken  by  the  flood  and  providentially 
changed  to  forms  that  had  some  chance  to  survive. 
Those  who  took  to  the  hills  became  monkeys ;  those 
who  made  for  the  water  became  fish.  The  Chinaman 
was  changed  to  a  hornbill.  A  woman  who  was  eating 
the  fruit  of  a  seaweed  was  turned  into  a  fish  called 
dugong,  and  her  limbs  may  be  seen  under  its  skin 
to  this  day. 

Worcester  had  made  several  unsuccessful  attempts, 
in  different  parts  of  the  Moro  country,  to  get  an  ex- 
planation of  the  strong  aversion  of  the  people  to  pork. 
One  day  his  friend,  the  Minister,  called  in  a  state  of 
inebriation  and,  taken  off  his  guard,  made  the  follow- 
ing interesting  statement: 

CHRIST   AND   MUHAMMAD   IN    MORO    LEGEND. 

"Jesus  Christ,  called  by  the  Moros  Isa,  was  a  man 
like  ourselves,  but  great,  and  good,  and  very  power- 


A  MORO  LEGEND.  505 

ful.  He  was  not  a  son  of  God.  The  Moros  hate  and 
kill  the  Christians  because  they  teach  that  men  could 
slay  a  son  of  God. 

"Mohamoud  had  a  grandson  and  a  granddaughter 
of  whom  he  was  very  fond.  As  he  was  king  of  the 
world,  Christ  came  to  his  house  to  visit  him.  Mo- 
hamoud, jealous  of  him,  told  him  to  prove  his  power 
by  'divining'  what  he  had  in  a  certain  room,  where, 
in  fact,  were  his  grandchildren.  Christ  replied  that 
he  had  no  wish  to  prove  his  power  and  would  not 
'divine'  (divinar).  Mohamoud  then  vowed  that  if 
he  did  not  answer  correctly  he  would  pay  for  it  with 
his  life.  Christ  responded :  'You  have  two  animals  in 
there  different  from  anything  else  in  the  world.' 
Mohamoud  replied:  'You  are  wrong,  and  I  will  now 
kill  you.'  Christ  said :  'Look  first  and  see  for  your- 
self.' Mohamoud  opened  the  door  and  out  rushed 
two  hogs  into  which  Christ  had  changed  his  grand- 
children." 

Worcester  goes  on  to  say :  "Moros  are  forbidden  to 
tell  this  story  to  infidels  because  it  shows  that  Christ 
outwitted  their  great  prophet.  When  my  informant 
sobered  up  and  realized  what  he  had  done,  he  hung 
around,  day  after  day,  beseeching  me  not  to  let  any 
one  know  what  he  had  told  me,  from  which  fact  I 
inferred  that  he  thought  he  had  told  me  the  truth  and 
not  a  fable  invented  for  the  occasion." 

In  their  futile  attempts  to  subdue  t:he  Moros  the 
Spaniards  established  garrisons  in  the  south,  but 


506  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

beyond  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  these  posts 
the  authority  of  the  white  man  was  merely  nominal. 
The  Moros  were  never  compelled  to  pay  taxes,  and  in 
recent  years  an  effort  to  collect  tributo  resulted  in  the 
annihilation  of  the  entire  garrison  at  Sulu. 

The  earliest  Spanish  post  among  the  Moros  was  at 
Zamboanga,  where  the  old  fort  is  still  a  feature  of 
the  town.  It  proved  to  be,  more  on  account  of  the 
negligence  of  the  authorities  than  from  the  natural 
unhealthiness  of  the  climate,  a  veritable  death-trap. 
For  many  years  the  casualties,  due  to  disease,  repre- 
sented eighty  per  cent,  of  the  force.  Nevertheless, 
as  the  service  was  invested  with  the  character  of  a 
crusade,  soldiers  embraced  it  willingly. 

BASILAN   AND    THE    YAKAN    MOROS. 

At  the  village  of  Isabel,  the  capital  of  Basilan,  the 
Spaniards  had  another  post,  with  a  military  depot 
on  the  neighboring  islet  called  Malamaui. 

The  Yakan  Moros  of  Basilan  had  acquired  an  un- 
enviable reputation  for  disregard  of  the  laws  of  man, 
or  God,  but  towards  the  close  of  the  Spanish  regime 
they  were  held  in  check  under  very  curious  circum- 
stances. 

Their  daio  was,  and  probably  is  yet,  a  Visayan,  or 
Tagal,  criminal  who  had  been  sent  down  to  the  penal 
settlement  at  San  Ramon,  near  Zamboanga,  which  is 
at  present  the  site  of  a  model  farm.  The  convict, 
whose  name  was  Pedro  Cuevas,  planned  escape  with 


STRANGE  SWAY  OF  A  FOREIGNER.  507 

two  of  his  fellow  prisoners.  Whilst  at  work  in  the 
fields  one  day  they  overcame  their  guard,  killed  the 
Spanish  officer  in  charge,  and  got  away,  taking  a 
carbine  with  them. 

They  immediately  followed  the  coast  to  Ayala, 
which  they  reached  on  the  night  following  the  day  of 
their  coup.  Here  they  murdered  a  Chinese  shop- 
keeper, plundered  his  store  of  what  they  needed,  and, 
securing  a  boat,  crossed  over  to  Basilan.  On  landing, 
they  proceeded  at  once  to  the  nearest  village  and  to 
the  house  of  the  dato,  upon  whom  Pedro  called  to 
come  out  and  fight.  Such  an  invitation  was  never 
declined  by  a  Moro,  and  the  chieftain  rolled  out  of 
bed  with  alacrity  and  soon  emerged  from  his  hut  with 
lance  and  shield.  The  combat  was  a  very  unequal 
one,  for  before  the  Yakan  could  use  his  weapon 
Pedro  shot  him  dead.  The  convict  then  turned  his 
carbine  upon  the  assembling  villagers  with  such  effect 
that  before  daybreak  they  were  glad  to  install  him  in 
the  place  of  the  fallen  dato. 

THE    STRANGE    SWAY    OF    A    FOREIGNER    OVER    A    MORO 
COMMUNITY. 

Dato  Pedro  subdued  the  neighboring  villages  one 
after  another  and  rapidly  established  a  reputation 
for  bravery  and,  which  was  of  equal  influence  with 
the  Moros,  for  having  a  charmed  life.  In  a  short 
time  he  had  practical  control  of  the  entire  island.  He 
maintained  his  rule  with  an  iron  hand  and  hundreds 


508  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

of  stories  are  told  of  his  despotic  practices.  The 
slightest  opposition  to  his  wishes  met  with  immedi- 
ate death.  One  of  many  similar  stories  is  that  a 
visitor  from  Zamboanga  happened  to  admire  a  horse, 
upon  which  a  Moro  from  a  nearby  village  had  just 
ridden  up  to  Data  Pedro's  house.  The  chieftain 
asked  his  friend  if  he  would  like  to  have  it,  and  being 
answered  in  the  affirmative,  without  more  ado  shot 
the  rider  as  he  sat  in  the  saddle  and  presented  his 
mount  to  the  visitor. 

Pedro  contrived  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the 
Spanish  authorities  at  Isabel,  who  realized  the  ad- 
vantage of  having  the  unruly  inhabitants  of  the  island 
held  in  leash  by  a  man  on  friendly  terms  with  them- 
selves. His  crimes  against  the  State  were  pardoned 
and  he  lived  on  excellent  terms  with  the  resident 
governor. 

The  domination  of  this  remarkable  man  over  an 
island  full  of  turbulent  Moros  was  due  in  a  measure 
to  the  fact  that  he  only  among  them  possessed  fire- 
arms, but  probably  in  a  much  greater  degree  to  their 
belief  that  he  was  impervious  to  harm.  The  natives 
of  the  Philippines  everywhere  believe  that  certain  in- 
dividuals have  charmed  lives.  Almost  all  the  leaders 
of  the  bands  of  tulisanes  enjoy  this  distinction.  To 
attempt  to  injure  such  a  one  is  not  only  useless,  but 
highly  dangerous  and  foolhardy. 

The  administration  of  General  Arolas,  though  free 
from  acts  of  barbarity,  was  characterized  by  the  un- 


THE  MASTERFUL  RULE  OF  AROLAS.  509 

flinching  severity  of  Pedro,  and,  as  the  former  was 
the  only  Spaniard  who  ever  succeeded  in  maintaining 
order  among  the  Moros,  the  methods  of  these  two  men 
in  their  respective  spheres  may  afford  some  hint  as 
to  the  most  effective  means  of  dealing  with  the  unruly 
people  of  the  southern  islands. 

The  Moros  called  Arolas  "papa,"  the  term  denot- 
ing, however,  not  affection,  but  respect.  These  people 
can  understand  justice,  but  they  have  no  appreciation 
of  kindness,  which  they  invariably  construe  as  a 
sign  of  weakness.  They  soon  learned  that  Arolas 
never  indulged  in  idle  talk,  or  feeble  threats.  His 
promise,  whether  it  entailed  good  or  ill,  was  sure  of 
fulfillment.  His  order  disobeyed  was  inevitably  fol- 
lowed by  punishment.  He  made  little  distinction  be- 
tween white  men  and  brown,  dato  or  slave. 

In  Arolas'  day,  Sulu  was  the  cleanest  town  in  the 
Colony,  and  probably  the  cleanest  under  Spanish 
administration  anywhere.  The  streets  were  covered 
with  white  sand  and  regularly  swept  twice  a  day,  not 
that  they  needed  it,  but,  as  the  Governor  was  wont  to 
declare,  "if  it  were  not  done  twice  a  day  soon  it 
would  not  be  done  once  a  week."  A  story  was  cur- 
rent that  he  had  issued  an  order  forbidding  the  trees 
to  shed  their  leaves  upon  his  streets.  A  white  man 
who  threw  a  cigar  stub  or  a  scrap  of  paper  upon  the 
street  was  promptly  fined  and  a  native  thrashed. 


510  THE  PHILIPPINES.      . 

The  wide  thoroughfares  and  ample  sidewalks,  bor- 
dered by  cement  gutters  and  lined  with  shade  trees, 
are  laid  out  with  exact  uniformity  and  at  right  angles. 
Scarcely  a  trace  of  the  ancient  town  was  left  when 
the  Spaniards,  in  1878,  took  it  and  cleared  the  site 
preparatory  to  building  the  present  town,  with  its 
defensive  walls  of  brick,  and  redoubts  and  block- 
houses. 

MODERN   SULU. 

Sulu  was  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Sultans  and  the 
centre  of  Morodom.  After  its  capture  the  native 
capital  was  transferred  to  Maibun  on  the  south  coast, 
and  here  the  Sultan  has  his  residence  to-day. 

The  houses  have  an  unfamiliar  appearance  to  the 
visitor  from  the  northern  islands.  They  are  painted 
white,  or  treated  with  calsomine,  and  the  nipa  roof 
of  the  Filipino  dwelling  is  entirely  absent.  There 
are  several  substantial  buildings  of  stone  used  for 
public  purposes  and  to  quarter  the  troops.  For  the 
accommodation  of  the  Moros  who  come  in  on  certain 
days  with  produce  and  merchandise,  a  large  market 
has  been  recently  constructed. 

Sulu  is  only  a  good  sized  military  post  with  a  popu- 
lation of  a  few  hundred,  only  four  of  whom  are  Moros, 
but  it  is  a  beautiful  little  place,  enjoying  good  water 
and  a  salubrious  climate. 

The  anchorage  is  good  and  a  stone  pier  runs  more 
than  one  hundred  yards  into  the  sea,  with  a  light- 


THE  MORO  IS  A  MAN  OF  THE  SEA.  511 

house  at  the  end  of  it,  for  Sulu  is  a  port  of  consid- 
erable consequence,  having  direct  communication  with 
Singapore  and  Manila,  and  doing  a  large  interisland 
trade.  The  export  business  is  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  Chinese. 

THE   MORO  IS  A   MAN    OF   THE   SEA. 

The  Moro  is  almost  an  amphibian  and  the  only 
kind  of  work  to  which  he  takes  at  all  kindly  is 
connected  with  the  water.  Children  are  at  home  in 
it  as  soon  as  they  can  walk,  and  swim  and  dive  with 
remarkable  ease  and  confidence.  The  men  are  the 
most  expert  divers  in  the  world,  and  can  remain 
under  the  surface  for  several  minutes  at  a  time. 
They  frequently  encounter  sharks,  but  are  absolutely 
fearless  and  will  often  plunge  in  and  attack  the 
creatures  with  a  knife. 

The  principal  industry  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago  is 
the  collection  of  sea-produce,  and  competent  judges 
have  declared  that  it  is  capable  of  great  extension. 

Pearls  and  mother-of-pearl  are  secured  in  large 
quantities  in  these  waters,  where  the  most  perfect  con- 
ditions exist  for  the  development  of  the  mollusks. 
It  is  said  that  the  area  suited  to  the  growth  of  the 
pearl-oyster  approximates  fifteen  thousand  square 
miles,  an  extent  of  bed  more  than  sufficient  to  supply 
the  present  large  demand  of  the  whole  world  for 
mother-of-pearl. 

The  search  for  pearls  is  a  very  precarious  occupa- 


512  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

tion,  and  the  Moro  divers  consider  it  merely  inci- 
dental to  the  collection  of  the  more  certain  product. 
A  tally  was  kept  of  five  thousand  bivalves,  and  it 
was  found  that  they  did  not  yield  a  single  pearl  worth 
twenty-five  dollars.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  said 
that  an  Englishman,  a  few  years  since,  discovered 
a  shell  devoid  of  the  oyster  but  holding  sixty-five 
pearls. 

THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE    PEARL. 

"There  have  been  all  sorts  of  theories  advanced  as 
to  the  origin  of  the  pearl.  One  ancient  author  states 
that  the  oyster  rises  to  receive  the  raindrops  which 
are  afterwards  converted  into  pearls,  and  this  theory 
obtained  amongst  the  natives  of  the  new  world  at 
the  time  of  Columbus,  as  they  thought  they  were 
formed  from  petrified  dewdrops  in  connection  with 
sunbeams.  .  .  .  The  prevailing  idea,  however, 
amongst  scientists  is  that  the  formation  is  caused  by 
an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  oyster  in  which  the  pearl 
is  found  to  rid  itself  of  an  irritation  caused  by  the 
presence  of  some  foreign  body  which  excites  the  secre- 
tion of  nacreous  matter,  in  concentric  layers,  until 
the  foreign  substance  is  encysted,  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  human  body  encysts  foreign  bodies  em- 
bedded therein,  and  renders  them  comparatively  harm- 
less. The  experience  of  pearl-fishers  lends  weight 
to  thn  theory,  because  they  find  that  shells  irregular 
in  shape,  stunted  in  growth,  bearing  excrescences,  or 


MOTHER-OF-PEARL  INDUSTRY.  613 

having  shell  honeycombed  by  parasites,  are  the  most 
likely  to  yield  pearls.7' 

The  Sultan  of  Sulu  has  always  been  the  owner  of 
some  of  the  finest  pearls  in  the  world,  secured  from 
the  waters  of  his  own  territory.  From  time  to  time, 
as  funds  ran  low  with  the  potentate,  rare  specimens 
from  his  treasury  have  found  their  way  to  London 
and  Paris. 

The  Sultan,  who  died  in  1879,  was  known  to  pos- 
sess a  box  full  of  pearls  of  extraordinary  value,  but 
after  his  death  they  disappeared.  Subsequently  his 
son  and  successor  recovered  a  portion  of  the  stolen 
gems,  and  in  1882  sold  a  few  in  order  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  his  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  He  must  be 
at  present  the  possessor  of  a  very  fine  collection. 

THE   MOTHEBrOF-PEARL,   INDUSTRY  OF  SULU. 

The  hard,  silvery,  iridescent  coat,  which  adds 
greatly  to  the  commercial  value,  is  especially  charac- 
teristic of  the  Sulu  pearl.  The  mother-of-pearl,  too, 
from  this  region  ranks  the  highest  in  the  market, 
bringing  as  great  a  price  as  nine  hundred  dollars  a 
ton. 

The  chief  sources  of  the  world's  supply  of  this 
ornamental  material  are  Torres  Strait,  Western  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  Sulu  Archipelago.  Until  1886  Manila 
was  the  chief  centre  of  this  trade  in  the  Orient,  but 
the  short-sighted  policy  of  the  Colonial  Government 
forced  its  transfer  to  the  British  port  of  Singapore. 


514  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  present  trade  of  the  United  States  in  this 
product  is  in  an  abnormal  condition.  The  raw  ma- 
terial is  derived  from  American  territory,  but  passes 
through  Singapore  into  the  hands  of  British  im- 
porters in  London,  whence  it  is  shipped  to  the  United 
States  and  worked  up  in  American  factories.  The 
business  is  one  of  no  small  consideration,  as  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  the  United  States  has  for  several 
years  past  consumed  more  than  one  million  dollars' 
worth  of  the  material  annually. 


VITAL  ISSUES. 


XIV. 

VITAL  ISSUES.* 

The  Inception  of  American  Rule — Police — Education — Ju- 
diciary—Personal Rights— The  Friar  Lands — The  Ques- 
tion of  Independence — "The  Philippines  for  the  Filipinos" 
—The  Popular  Assembly — An  Unselfish  Administration 
— Taxpaying  Capacity — Natural  Resources — Trade  Rela- 
tions with  the  United  States — The  Local  Business  Situa- 
tion— The  Projected  Railroad  System — The  Labor  Question 
— Climatic  Conditions — The  Broader  Policy. 


President  McKinley  conceived  that  the  war  might 
be  brought  to  an  end  if  with  the  rigor  of  a  military 
campaign  he  mingled,  as  an  object  lesson,  the  peaceful 
methods  of  organizing  civil  government,  and  so  he 
sent  a  civil  commission,  which,  following  in  the  wake 
of  the  army  wherever  it  deemed  conditions  favorable, 
organized  municipal  and  provincial  governments  on 
bases  so  liberal  in  the  matter  of  autonomy  as  to  sur- 
prise the  inhabitants  of  the  islands.  The  municipal 
code  gave  COMPLETE  AUTONOMY  TO  THE  PEOPLE — that 


*  The  following  chapter  is  composed  of  literal  extracts 
from  public  addresses  delivered  by  the  Hon.  William  H.  Taft 
during  the  year  1904,  discussing  the  most  important  issues 
connected  with  the  Philippines. 


(517) 


518  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

is,  to  those  eligible  to  vote,  who  constitute  hardly  15 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  The  organization 
of  governments  began  after  the  second  election  of 
McKinley.  Then,  too,  was  formed  the  Federal  party, 
a  party  the  main  plank  of  which  was  peace  under 
the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States ;  and  the  second 
plank  of  which  expressed  hope  that,  as  the  people  de- 
veloped in  the  course  of  self-government,  the  Archi- 
pelago might  be  received,  first,  as  a  Territory  and 
then  as  a  State. 

The  leading  members  of  the  Federal  party  had 
been  Americanistas  and  always  sympathized  with 
America  in  its  desire  to  establish  just  and  well- 
ordered  government  there.  They  now  were  able  to 
unite  with  them  in  every  town  in  the  islands  a  great 
majority  of  the  respectable  people — the  educated, 
wealthy  people — who,  overcoming  their  fear  of  as- 
sassination and  intimidation  by  the  guerrillas,  came 
together  in  such  force  as  to  protect  themselves,  and 
joined  in  making  up  municipal  and  provincial  gov- 
ernments under  the  American  sovereignty,  which  are 
the  foundation  of  the  present  general  government  in 
the  islands.  The  provincial  government  was  not  en- 
tirely autonomous.  It  was  left  to  the  people  to  elect 
the  governor.  The  other  provincial  officers  were  ap- 
pointed. Certain  of  them  were  SELECTED  UNDER  THE 
CIVIL-SERVICE  LAW.  In  the  central  government  the 
commission  of  five  Americans  was  increased  by  three 
Filipinos,  and  a  civil  governor  was  subsequently  ap- 


ORDER  AND  EDUCATION.  519 

pointed,  who  was  a  member  of  the  commission,  but 
did  not  have  the  veto  power.  That  power  resided 
in  the  Secretary  of  War.  All  this  was  done  under 
President  McKinley  as  Commander-in-Chief,  and 
was  a  quasi  military  government  until,  by  an  act 
passed  in  July,  1902,  the  government  which  had  been 
formed  was  confirmed  by  Congressional  action  and  its 
powers  considerably  enlarged  and  extended.  By  that 
act  a  popular  assembly  will  be  elected  in  1906,  and 
will  form  one  branch  of  the  law-making  power  of  the 
islands. 

The  next  thing  which  was  done  was  the  suppression 
of  ladronism.  In  order  to  do  this  it  became  neces- 
sary to  create  a  force  of  native  constabulary  in  each 
province  under  American  oificers.  Numbering  6,500, 
with  the  assistance  of  3,500  Philippine  scouts,  the 
constabulary  in  two  years  after  the  close  of  the  insur- 
rection HAS  REDUCED  LADRONISM  to  less  of  a  nuisance 
than  it  ever  has  been  in  the  history  of  the  islands. 
The  constabulary  has  had  its  defects  and  its  abuses, 
but  on  the  whole  it  has  done  remarkable  work  in 
policing  so  many  islands  occupied  by  so  many  mil- 
lions of  people.  The  army  has  been  called  on  only 
in  three  or  four  instances.  The  task  of  suppressing 
the  ladrones  has  been  done  almost  wholly  by  Filipinos. 

The  next  thing  which  was  done  wras  to  establish  an 
educational  system,  and  a  thousand  American  teach- 
ers were  imported  and  sent  over  the  islands  to  teach 
the  children,  and  to  exercise  the  beneficent  influence 


520  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

that  teachers,  as  almoners  of  that  which  is  most  val- 
uable from  the  government,  are  able  to  exercise  among 
people  who  hold  in  high  esteem,  education. 


There  has  been  considerable  criticism  of  the  edu- 
cational system  in  the  Philippines,  and  I  do  not  say 
that  the  system  is  perfect,  but  I  do  say  we  are  accom- 
plishing very  substantial  results.  We  are  teaching  the 
people  English,  and  the  people  desire  to  learn  English. 
Certain  persons  who  have  not  been  in  the  islands,  or 
who  were  there  so  short  a  time  as  to  learn  but  little, 
are  quite  contemptuous  of  the  attempt  on  the  part  of 
the  Government  to  teach  English.  There  is  NO 
JUSTIFICATION  FOB  THEIR  SNEERS  or  contempt.  We 
are  now  teaching  only  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  youth 
of  the  islands  of  school  age,  but  we  are  preparing  a 
very  large  number  of  Filipino  teachers  in  English 
at  normal  schools.  We  send  100  Filipino  students  a 
year  to  study  in  America.  From  these  sources  we 
expect  to  fill  the  ranks  of  the  Filipino  teachers  with 
English-speaking  Filipinos,  so  that  in  less  than  a 
decade  we  shall  be  able  to  offer  to  every  Filipino  child 
who  will  study,  the  means  of  learning  English  and 
of  getting  an  elementary  education,  and  of  studying 
in  training  schools  when  he  is  adapted  to  learn  the 
trades. 

The  eagerness  with  which  English  is  studied  by 
the  Filipino  finds  its  cause  in  the  badge  of  equality 


PUBLIC  IMPROVEMENTS.  521 

which  the  opportunity  offered  constitutes.  Under  the 
Spanish  regime  the  study  of  Spanish  by  the  masses 
was  not  favored.  I  fear  that  the  contempt  felt  for 
our  efforts  to  educate  the  Filipinos  finds  its  reason  in 
a  desire  to  get  rid  of  the  islands.  I  agree  that  such 
a  system  of  education  as  that  which  we  are  preparing 
is  probably  inconsistent  with  a  short  stay  of  the 
United  States  in  the  islands.  We  cannot  teach  Fili- 
pinos English  in  a  year.  We  can  hardly  teach  them 
English  in  a  generation.  We  can  only  teach  them 
English  thoroughly  through  the  children,  but  we 

MUST    WAIT    UNTIL    THE    CHILDREN    GROW    UP    and   be- 

come  men  before  the  adults  shall  speak  English. 
Now,  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  preparation  of 
the  people  of  the  Philippine  Islands  for  any  kind  of 
permanent  self-government  in  which  there  shall  be 
the  safety  brake  of  a  popular,  intelligent  public  opin- 
ion, that  the  90  per  cent,  of  ignorant  people  in  the 
islands  should  be  given  a  chance  to  receive  an  ele- 
mentary education,  and  it  is  upon  this  fact  that  I 
found  the  judgment  that  if  we  are  in  the  islands  and 
expect  to  discharge  our  duty  to  the  people  of  the 
islands  and  prepare  them  for  self-government,  we  can- 
not hope  to  do  so  short  of  a  generation  or  longer. 

Next  in  order,  we  have  attempted  to  construct  pub- 
lic improvements  in  the  islands.  Indeed,  it  comes 
first  in  order,  for  the  first  act  which  was  passed  was 
the  appropriation  of  $1,000,000  from  the  treasury  for 
the  construction  of  roads,  under  the  control  of  the 


522  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

military  government.  This  money  was  expended  as 
economically  as  possible  by  the  military  governor, 
and  I  doubt  not  has  done  considerable  good  in  the 
country.  But  the  effect  of  the  torrential  rains  upon 
the  macadamized  roads  in  the  tropics  is  so  destructive 
that  it  requires  nearly  as  much  to  keep  a  road  in  re- 
pair as  it  does  for  its  original  construction ;  and  the 
dreadful  agricultural  depression,  due  to  the  death  of 
nearly  all  the  cattle  from  rinderpest,  and  the  conse- 
quent failure  of  local  taxes  due  to  this  depression, 
have  caused  local  authorities  necessarily  to  neglect  the 
repairs. 

The  Commission  has  expended  two  millions  and  has 
contracted  to  spend  two  millions  more  in  THE  CON- 
STRUCTION OF  POET  WORKS  AT  MANILA,  and  about 
half  a  million  at  Cebu  and  Iloilo.  Mr.  Colquhoun 
complains  that  the  money  for  Cebu  and  Iloilo  has 
been  appropriated  but  has  not  yet  been  expended. 
This  is  true.  We  have  advertised  for  bids,  but  when 
I  left  the  islands  we  had  not  succeeded  in  inducing 
anybody  to  undertake  the  work.  Since  leaving  the 
islands  I  understand  that  a  contractor  has  taken  the 
work  at  Cebu.  It  must  be  understood,  even  by  an 
active,  enterprising  Englishman,  that  in  a  country 
like  the  Philippines,  where  there  are  not  many  con- 
tractors, there  is  very  little  capital,  and  the  former 
unsettled  conditions  do  not  attract  many  contractors 
from  abroad.  It  is  difficult  to  secure  the  doing  of 
work  even  if  you  have  the  money  and  will.  Millions 


THE  JUDICIARY.  523 

are  now  being  spent  in  the  islands  on  roads,  and  if 
we  can  secure  the  requisite  legislation  I  am  sure  that 
millions  more  will  be  spent  in  the  construction  of  rail- 
roads. The  truth  is,  it  is  much  more  economical  to 
construct  railroads  than  it  is  to  construct  wagon  roads, 
and  railroads  will  revolutionize  business  and  society 
in  the  islands. 

The  third  thing  which  we  have  done  is  to  establish 
a  judiciary  system.  It  was  proposed  that  we  have 
what  is  called  United  States  Court,  in  which  foreign- 
ers and  Americans  could  be  heard  against  the  natives, 
and  that  the  other  courts  should  be  courts  for  natives 
only.  We  declined  to  take  this  view,  and  created 
courts  in  which  both  native  and  American  judges  sit. 

The  SUPREME  COURT  OF  THREE  FlLIPINO  JUDGES  and 

four  American  judges  will  compare  favorably  with 
any  supreme  court  of  the  States,  and  the  courts  of 
first  instance,  numbering  now  fifteen,  in  which  part 
of  the  judges  are  native  and  part  American,  covering 
the  entire  Archipelago,  are  doing  their  work  well,  and 
are  bringing  to  the  people  an  understanding  of  what 
the  administration  of  justice  should  be.  I  think  there 
is  no  one  part  of  the  government  in  which  we  may 
justly  take  more  pride  than  in  the  judiciary,  and 
while  its  organization  has  been  surrounded  with  great 
difficulty  because  of  the  necessity  of  interpreting  from 
the  Spanish  language  into  the  English,  and  from 
English  into  the  Spanish,  and  because  of  the  necessary 
ignorance  of  the  Filipino  judges  of  American  pro- 


524  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

cedure,  and  the  necessary  ignorance  of  the  American 
judges  of  the  civil  substantive  law,  nevertheless  the 
obstacles  seem  to  have  been  overcome,  and  the  system 
works  much  more  smoothly  than  could  have  reason- 
ably been  expected. 

We  have  not  disturbed  in  the  slightest  the  sub- 
stantive law  of  the  islands,  which  is  embraced  in 
civil  codes,  the  chief  of  which  were  the  civil,  the 
mortgage,  and  the  commercial  codes.  We  have 
adopted  a  civil  code  of  procedure  to  take  the  place 
of  the  Spanish  code  of  procedure,  which  was  so  tech- 
nical as  to  enable  an  acute  lawyer  to  keep  his  op- 
ponent stamping  forever  in  the  vestibule  of  justice. 
The  criminal  code  of  procedure,  adopted  by  general 
order  of  General  Otis,  follows  the  California  code. 
It  is  simple,  and  seems  to  be  effective.  The  criminal 
code  itself  of  Spain,  eliminating  political  offenses  and 
religious  offenses,  is  quite  well  adapted  to  the  people, 
and  no  substantial  change  has  been  made  therein.  A 
few  crimes  have  been  added  to  meet  the  exigencies 
of  ladronism,  and  to  prevent  the  press  from  an  abuse 
of  their  privileges.  But  all  these  provisions  were 

WITHIN    THE    CONSTITUTIONAL    LIMITATIONS,    which, 

by  virtue  of  the  instructions  of  Mr.  McKinley  to  Mr. 
Koot,  and  their  confirmation  by  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  extended  to  the  people  of  the  islands 
all  the  civil  rights  included  in  the  Bill  of  Eights,  ex- 
cept the  right  to  bear  arms  and  the  right  to  trial  by 
jury.  Now,  I  have  been  frequently  asked  in  let- 


PERSONAL  RIGHTS.  525 

ters  from  suspicious  individuals,  resident  in  and  about 
Boston,  whether  it  is  true  that  all  the  civil  rights  are 
secured  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 
Are  they  not  still  subject  to  the  surveillance  and  an- 
noyances which  they  encountered  under  the  Spanish 
rule  ?  With  respect  to  this  I  should  like  to  say  first 
that  any  inhabitant  of  the  Philippine  Islands  is 
entitled  to  apply  to  court  for  the  preservation  of  every 
right  mentioned  in  the  Bill  of  Eights,  save  the  right 
of  trial  by  jury  and  the  right  to  bear  arms,  and 
that  if  he  will  assert  his  right  it  will  be  secured  to 
him. 

It  may  be  that  in  the  province  of  Cavite,  where 
ladronism  is  so  ingrained  that  it  has  been  necessary 
at  times  to  declare  martial  law  and  to  suspend  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus,  this  is  not  true.  Everywhere 
else  it  is  the  fact.  Now,  the  question  is  asked,  Are 
not  people  arrested  for  exhibiting  seditious  plays? 
My  answer  to  that  is  that  they  have  been.  In  Manila 
the  exhibition  of  a  play  in  which  the  AMERICAN  FLAG 
is  STAMPED  UPON  and  spit  upon,  and  American  sol- 
diers are  represented  as  being  killed,  and  the  Amer- 
ican nation  as  overwhelmed  by  violence,  is  an  invita- 
tion to  force  and  violence  against  the  government  by 
the  ignorant  people,  and  its  suppression  by  arrest  of 
the  instigators  is  no  violation  of  the  Bill  of  Rights. 

The  question  is  asked  whether  a  man  may  advocate 
the  independence  of  the  islands  by  peaceable  means 
and  be  free  from  prosecution  and  persecution  by  the 


526  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Government.  My  answer  is  that  he  may.  There  is 
a  party — the  Nationalist  party — a  plank  in  whose 
platform  is  the  obtaining  of  independence  by  peace- 
able means.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  where  a  sus- 
pected insurrecio,  one  suspected  of  membership  in  the 
physical-force  party,  is  loud  in  his  advocacy  of  inde- 
pendence, that  he  may  not,  by  the  secret  service  bu- 
reau of  the  police,  be  subjected  to  surveillance,  but 
that  is  an  incident  from  which  even  CITIZENSHIP  IN 
THIS  COUNTRY  is  NOT  FREE.  It  suffices  that  he  can- 
not be  prosecuted  or  convicted  for  advocating  inde- 
pendence by  peaceable  means. 

Next  we  have  attempted,  as  far  as  we  could,  to 
relieve  the  political  situation  in  the  islands  from  cer- 
tain disturbing  factors  growing  out  of  their  religious 
history.  Spain  took  over  the  islands  in  1564,  when 
she  sent  Legaspi  as  military  commander  of  a  fleet 
of  five  ships,  and  five  Augustinian  friars,  including 
Urdaneta,  to  take  possession  of  the  islands.  With 
very  little  friction  she  assumed  sovereignty  over  the 
whole  Archipelago,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
the  islands  were  brought  under  Spain's  control  and 
influence  not  by  force,  but  by  the  peaceful  exertions 
of  the  Spanish  friars  of  the  five  orders — the  Domini- 
cans, Augustinians,  Recoletos,  Franciscans,  and 
Jesuits.  The  men  of  these  religious  orders  labored 
for  three  centuries  to  make  Christians  of  the  Fili- 
pino people.  They  taught  them  the  arts  of  agricul- 
ture and  gave  them  other  instruction.  Until  the  nine- 


THE  FRIAR  LANDS.  527 

teenth  century  they  exercised  great  control  over  the 
natives  by  reason  of  their  sincere  protection  •  of  the 
natives'  rights. 

Before  1800  they  received  natives  into  their  orders 
and  permitted  the  hierarchy  to  be  partly  filled  by 
natives.  During  the  last  century,  however,  there  grew 
up  a  feeling  of  jealousy  between  the  native  clergy  and 
the  friars,  growing  out  of  their  rivalry  for  rectorships 
in  parishes  throughout  the  islands.  Added  to  this, 
when  the  Suez  Canal  was  opened  HORDES  OF  SPAN- 
IARDS CAME  to  the  islands,  offices  were  greatly  in- 
creased, taxes  became  heavier,  and  the  hospitality  of 
the  Filipinos,  so  freely  offered,  was  abused.  The 
young  and  educated  Filipino  began  to  have  concep- 
tions of  liberty  and  a  better  administration  of  govern- 
ment. The  Spanish  authorities  were  glad  to  use  the 
friars,  who  were  reactionary  in  their  opinion,  as  civil 
instruments  in  the  detection  and  prosecution  of  such 
sentiments.  Hence  it  was  that  the  government  and 
the  friars  were  brought  together  in  opposition  to  the 
Philippine  people  and  a  hostility  was  engendered 
which  knew  no  limit  against  those  priests  whose  pre- 
decessors with  utmost  self-sacrifice  and  loving  devo- 
tion to  duty  had  Christianized  the  islands  and  pre- 
pared their  people  for  a  higher  civilization.  The 
spirit  of  vengeance  against  the  friars  was  sufficiently 
shown  in  the  revolution  of  1898,  when  40  of  their 
number  were  killed  by  the  people  and  the  insurgents 
and  300  were  imprisoned  and  subjected  to  all  sorts 


528  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

of  indignities  and  suffering  until  released  by  the 
American  troops.  In  this  state  of  public  feeling  it 
is  not  surprising  that  the  ownership  of  400,000  of  the 
BEST  ACRES  IN  THE  ISLANDS  by  the  religious  orders 
caused  an  agrarian  revolt  among  their  tenants,  and 
the  question  of  the  collection  of  their  rents,  their  title 
to  the  land  being  clear,  became  a  very  serious  one. 
They  did  not  collect  any  rents  from  1896  to  1903. 
Courts  were  then  opened  and  the  friars  had  the  right 
to  resort  to  them  for  collection,  not  only  of  the  rents 
just  accruing  but  also  for  the  rents  from  1898.  A 
general  attempt  to  collect  such  rents  must  have  re- 
sulted in  judgments.  There  would  have  followed  the 
eviction  of  some  60,000  people  at  the  instance  of  the 
unpopular  religious  orders.  The  situation  was  criti- 
cal. A  visit  to  Rome  for  consultation  upon  this  ques- 
tion seemed  wise,  and  it  was  undertaken. 

A  general  basis  of  agreement  was  reached  with  the 
Vatican,  and  after  a  year  of  negotiation  in  the 
islands  a  price  was  fixed  upon  the  lands  and  the  con- 
tract of  purchase  made  last  December ;  the  money  for 
the  purchase  price  has  been  borrowed  and  is  in  the 
banks  awaiting  perfecting  of  the  titles  and  the  sur- 
veys necessary  for  the  description  of  the  land.*  As  an 
accompaniment  of  the  purchase  of  the  lands  and  a  re- 
sult much  to  be  desired,  the  number  of  friars  in  the 
islands  has  been  reduced  from  something  over  1,000 

*  The  "friar  lands"  have  since  been  transferred  to  the 
United  States.— AUTHOR. 


THE  QUESTION  OF  INDEPENDENCE.  529 

in  1898  to  about  246  on  the  1st  of  January,  1904,  and 
of  these  246,  83  are  Dominicans  who  have  renounced 
any  right  to  go  into  the  parishes,  50  are  infirm  and 
unable  to  do  any  work,  so  that  only  about  100  are 
available,  and  many  of  these  are  engaged  in  educa- 
tional work.  The  intervention  of  the  Spanish  friars, 
therefore,  CEASES  TO  BECOME  IMPORTANT,  because 
there  are  not  enough  of  them  in  the  900  parishes  to 
cause  any  considerable  disturbance.  This  certainly 
removes  a  great  cause  of  contention  and  contributes 
to  the  tranquility  of  the  islands. 

And  now,  gentlemen,  what  of  the  future  ?  It  has 
been  strongly  urged  by  a  large  number  of  citizens  of 
high  standing  that  we  ought  now  to  promise  ultimate 
independence  to  the  Filipinos.  I  beg,  respectfully,  to 
differ  from  this  view.  The  promise  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  give  is  a  promise  which  must  be  conditioned 
on  THE  FITNESS  OF  THE  FILIPINOS  for  self-govern- 
ment.  The  promise  holds  up  to  the  people  of  the 
islands  for  constant  discussion  as  a  present  issue  the 
question,  "Are  we  now  fitted  for  self-government?" 
There  may  be  some  people  in  Manila  and  the  islands 
who  know  and  are  ready  to  say  that  the  people  are 
unfitted,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Filipinos  are  not 
different  from  other  people,  and  the  great  majority 
of  them  would  say  with  emphasis,  aWe  are  entirely 
fitted  for  self-government."  The  moment  therefore 
that  formal  promise  is  made  that  the  Filipinos  shall 

34 


530  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

have  independence  when  they  are  fitted  for  it,  it  willl 
he  accepted  by  them  as  a  promise  of  independence  in 
the  immediate  future. 

*  Dealing  with  the  Filipinos,  we  must  speak  with 
exact  truth.  The  truth  may  be  unpalatable,  but  they 
will  accept  it.  But  we  must  not  mislead  them.  Now, 
if  we  are  right  in  our  plan  that  we  have  begun,  of 
trying  to  do  this  people  good,  of  extending  to  them 
civil  liberty,  of  giving  them  an  opportunity  for  educa- 
tion, and  of  learning  the  art  of  self-government  and 
political  control  by  exercising  a  part  of  it,  then  it  is 
essential  that  they  should  assist,  as  far  as  possible,  in 
the  government,  and  should  help  it  along.  The  move- 
ment, in  order  to  be  a  success,  must  needs  have  the 
support  of  the  intelligent  and  conservative,  but  if  the 
issue  as  to  their  fitness  for  self-government  is  thrust 
into  politics,  and  the  construction  of  the  promise  as 
one  of  the  immediate  future  follows  as  it  certainly 
will,  then  the  interest  in  the  present  government,  even 
on  the  part  of  the  most  conservative,  must  wane,  and 
the  plans  for  a  gradual  education  of  the  Filipinos  in 
self-government  must  fail.  I  agree  that  if  all  one 
wishes  to  do  is  to  set  a  government  going,  to  fill  its 
offices  with  intelligent  Filipinos,  and  then  to  abandon 
the  islands,  one  may  readily  fix  a  time  for  the  purpose, 
but  that  is  not  my  idea  of  THE  DUTY  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  now  that  we  are  in  the  islands.  If  it  is,  our 
plan  of  education  is  wholly  at  fault.  The  moment 
that  we  move  out  of  the  islands,  if  we  leave  in  the 


THE  QUESTION  OF  INDEPENDENCE.  631 

few  years  proposed,  the  American  teachers  will  go, 
and  the  study  of  English,  which  has  received  such 
an  impetus  from  their  presence,  will  cease  to  be 
regarded  as  a  benefit,  education  will  fall  by  the  way- 
side, and  a  return  will  rapidly  be  made  to  the  condi- 
tion which  existed  under  Aguinaldo. 

Now,  in  such  a  condition  of  things,  when  the  pres- 
ence of  the  United  States  in  the  islands  is  necessary 
to  maintain  order  and  sustain  a  well-ordered  govern- 
ment, to  secure  civil  rights  to  the  people,  and  to  aliens 
with  vested  interests,  it  seems  to  me  most  unwise 
to  introduce  an  issue  by  a  promise  of  conditional 
independence  which  will  wean  the  people  away  from 
the  importance  of  the  present  government  and  invite 
them  to  a  discussion  of  the  wisdom  of  an  absolute 
change.  If  the  people  are  fit  for  self-government, 
then  I  agree  that  the  declaration  ought  to  be  made, 
and  that  we  ought  to  turn  the  islands  over.  It  is  a  dif- 
ference on  this  point  that  is  the  real  difference  between 
the  signers  of  the  petition  to  the  conventions  for  a 
promise  of  independence  and  those  who  oppose  the 
signers.  I  have  heard  it  said  by  people  who  have  not 
thought  much  on  the  subject  that  they  did  not  see 
any  great  difference  between  the  view  of  the  sign- 
ers of  the  petition  for  independence  and  mine. 
THE  DIFFERENCE  is  FUNDAMENTAL.  They  are  really 
in  favor  of  an  Aguinaldo  government  with  a  gloss  of 
declarations  in  favor  of  liberty  and  constitutional 


532  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

freedom  and  the  bill  of  rights,  which,  I  verily  believe, 
will  never  have  any  force  whatever.  I  am  in  favor 
of  teaching  the  people  how  to  govern  themselves,  and 
I  cannot  assume  that  such  a  lesson,  so  difficult  to  learn, 
can  be  taught  to  a  people  90  per  cent,  of  whom  are 
grossly  ignorant  to-day,  without  any  political  experi- 
ence whatever,  in  five  years,  as  some  of  our  opponents 
say,  or  in  twenty  years,  as  others  suggest. 

I  regard  the  learning  of  English  as  one  of  the  im- 
portant steps  in  the  education  of  these  people,  im- 
portant in  creating  a  solidarity  among  the  people  and 
in  enabling  the  people  to  understand  each  other, 
important  in  bringing  them  into  touch  with  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  world  where  they  shall  drink  in  the  principles 
of  civil  liberty.  My  standpoint  is  the  benefit  of  the 
Filipino  people.  To  state  the  matter  succinctly,  we 
have  secured  to  the  Filipinos,  by  what  we  have  done, 
civil  liberty,  and  we  are  gradually  extending  to  them 
political  control.  What  the  opponents  of  our  policy 
in  effect  and  result  are  contending  for  is  that  we 
should  turn  the  islands  over  to  a  small  minority,  who 
will  establish  a  government  in  which  CIVIL  LIBERTY 
WILL  BE  LOST  and  political  control  reside  with  a  few. 
The  standpoint  of  the  signers  of  the  petition  and 
others  who  stand  with  them  seems  to  be  that  of  de- 
cently getting  rid  of  a  nasty  job.  I  differ  with  them 
first,  in  thinking  that  the  discharge  of  the  duty  which 
is  imposed  upon  us  is  a  bad  job  or  that  it  is  going  to 
involve  any  such  disaster  as  is  prophesied.  It  is 


THE  LOGIC  OF  THE  SITUATION.  533 

said  that  it  will  implant  the  spirit  of  tyranny  and 
absolutism  in  this  country. 

As  long  as  those  who  exercise  authority  in  the 
Philippine  Islands  are  responsible  to  the  eighty  mil- 
lions of  people  in  this  country  the  spirit  of  absolutism 
is  sure  to  be  kept  well  in  abeyance.  What  it  will 
develop,  on  the  contrary,  is  the  spirit  of  altruism,  of 
a  desire  to  help  a  poor  people  wTho  need  our  help,  of 
a  desire  to  lift  them  up  and  to  do  it  at  the  expense  of 
great  national  effort  and  sacrifice.  Now,  this  is  said 
to  be,  by  those  who  speak  for  the  petitioners,  so 
altruistic  as  to  be  what  they  would  call  "sentimental" 
or  "lunar  politics."  I  do  not  agree.  Those  who  urge 
the  delivery  over  of  the  islands  in  a  few  years  evi- 
dently think  it  sufficient  if  we  frame  a  government, 
set  it  working,  and  let  it  go.  In  their  anxiety  to  get 
rid  of  the  islands,  they  put  themselves  unconsciously 
in  the  attitude  of  the  United  States  Senator  who,  in 
expressing  his  earnest  desire  to  get  rid  of  the  Philip- 
pines, CONSIGNED  THEM  TO  HELL.  Their  anxiety  finds 
its  reason  in  the  fear  that  the  American  people,  deriv- 
ing advantage  from  association  with  the  Philippine 
Islands  of  a  commercial  and  financial  character,  will 
never  be  willing  to  give  up  their  control  over  the 
islands,  however  fit  the  Filipinos  may  become  for  self- 
government.  It  is  their  distrust  of  the  American 
people  that  leads  such  men  into  anxiety  to  get  rid  of 
the  Filipino  people  before  the  association  shall  be- 
come profitable. 


534  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Now,  I  do  not  think  that  this  feeling  is  justified, 
because  I  feel  sure  that  after  the  Filipino  people 
become  well  educated,  and  wre  have  a  decent  gov- 
ernment there  in  which  the  Filipino  people  take  part, 
and  the  Filipino  people  request  independence,  the 
American  people  will  grant  it  to  them.  Why  should 
we  be  impatient  to  leave  the  islands  ?  If  we  may 
properly  stay  five  }ears  or  twenty  years  to  prepare 
the  people,  what  objection  on  principle  can  there  be 
to  our  staying  until  our  wTork  is  thoroughly  done? 
If  it  will  take  forty  or  fifty  years  thoroughly  to  pre- 
pare the  people  for  popular  government,  is  it  not  wiser 
and  better  for  the  Filipinos  to  maintain  the  present 
relation  for  that  time  than  to  allow  the  people  to  go 
at  the  end  of  five  years  and  fall  into  the  habits  of 
certain  so-called  republics  of  revolution,  anarchy,  and 
all  sorts  of  misgovernments  ?  I  do  not  dwell  upon  a 
danger  which  will  arise  if  we  set  going  a  government 
that  cannot  maintain  order  and  protect  vested  rights, 
but  foreign  intervention  in  such  a  case  is  most  proba- 
ble. In  such  event  the  amount  of  self-government 
allowed  to  the  Filipinos  by  an  intervening  European 
government  is  NOT  LIKELY  TO  STRAIN  THEIR  CAPAC- 
ITY, however  limited.  But  it  is  said  that  the  influ- 
ence of  governing  the  Philippines  for  a  long  time 
upon  our  Government  will  be  bad.  I  do  not  think 
that  thus  far  it  has  had  an  evil  influence. 

If  it  were  a  spoils  government  there,  I  agree  that 
it  might  become  a  stench  in  the  nostrils  of  everyone, 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ISLANDS.  535 

but  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  government  has  been  en- 
tirely nonpartisan.  Without  knowing  the  politics  of 
all  the  judges,  and  the  other  appointees  of  the  islands, 
I  think  it  only  fair  to  say  that  there  are  about  as 
many  Democrats  in  the  government  as  there  are  Re- 
publicans. A  civil-service  law,  much  more  stringent 
than  the  national  civil-service  law,  is  enforced  with 
fidelity,  and  while  there  is  much  difficulty  in  obtain- 
ing a  suitable  personnel  for  the  whole  government  in 
the  islands,  I  think  we  have  been  fairly  successful  in 
getting  competent  agents.  While  the  criticism  of  the 
anti-imperialists  and  their  attacks  upon  the  policy  of 
the  Government  worked  great  injury  in  misleading 
the  Filipinos  into  a  continuance  of  the  war,  their 
criticism  has  perhaps  unwittingly  been  of  some  value 
in  upholding  THE  STANDARD  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  in 
the  islands,  because  it  has  put  that  government  on 
trial  from  the  beginning,  and  has  made  every  mem- 
ber of  it  strain  himself  to  make  it  worthy  of  approval. 
What  the  Filipino  people  need  now,  first  of  all, 
is  material  development  in  the  islands,  and  that  the 
people  of  the  United  States  can  secure  them  if  the 
Philippine  government  is  given  the  requisite  powers. 
It  is  a  development  that  under  an  independent  govern- 
ment would  come  much  more  slowly  (if  indeed  it 
came  at  all)  than  it  will  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Government  of  the  United  States.  Capital  will  feel 
greatly  more  secure  under  a  government  which  has 
the  guiding  hand  and  brake  of  the  United  States 


536  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

than  it  would  under  Aguinaldo  and  his  followers. 
The  cost  to  the  people  of  getting  capital  into  the  coun- 
try will  be  vastly  reduced.  The  permanence  of  the 
improvements  and  their  character  will  be  much  bet- 
ter for  the  country  under  present  conditions  than 
where  the  uncertainty  of  a  changing  government  will 
treble  or  quadruple  the  risk. 

4 

Our  policy  in  the  Philippines  must  be  "The  Phil- 
ippines for  the  Filipinos."  This  duty  we  have  as- 
sumed and  it  is  the  duty  which  we  shall  doubtless  dis- 
charge. It  is  fortunate  that  this  policy  is  also  the 
best  policy  from  a  selfish  standpoint,  for  thus  we 
have  additional  assurance  of  its  being  maintained. 
The  more  we  develop  the  islands,  the  more  we  teach 
the  Filipinos  the  methods  of  maintaining  well-ordered 
government,  the  more  tranquility  succeeds  in  the 
islands,  the  better  the  business,  the  greater  the 
products,  and  the  more  profitable  the  association  with 
those  islands  in  a  business  way.  If  we  ultimately 
take  the  Philippines  in  behind  the  tariff  wall,  as  I 
hope  and  pray  we  may,  and  give  them  the  benefit  for 
their  peculiar  products  of  the  markets  of  the  United 
States,  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  DEVELOP  THAT 
WHOLE  COUNTRY,  of  inviting  the  capital  of  the  United 
States  into  the  islands,  and  of  creating  a  trade  be- 
tween the  islands  and  this  country  which  cannot  but 
be  beneficial  to  both.  Now,  under  these  circum- 
stances, is  it  impracticable,  is  it  wild  to  suppose  that 


THE  POPULAR  ASSEMBLY.  537 

the  people  of  the  islands  will  understand  the  benefit 
that  they  derive  from  such  association  with  the  United 
States  and  will  prefer  to  maintain  some  sort  of  bond 
so  that  they  may  be  within  the  tariff  wall  and  enjoy 
the  markets,  rather  than  separate  themselves  and 
become  independent  and  lose  the  valuable  business 
which  our  guardianship  of  them  and  our  obligation 
to  look  after  them  has  brought  to  them  ? 

Have  we  not  given  an  earnest  of  our  real  desire  to 
teach  them  the  science  of  self-government  by  provid- 
ing that  in  two  years  after  the  census  shall  be  pub- 
lished a  popular  assembly,  which  shall  exercise  equal 
authority  with  the  Commission  in  a  legislative  way 
in  the  islands,  shall  be  elected  by  popular  vote  ?  I  do 
not  look  for  very  encouraging  results  from  the  first 
or  second  session  of  this  assembly.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  in  the  beginning  there  will  be  in  the  assembly  ex- 
treme and  violent  partisans  of  immediate  indepen- 
dence and  of  autonomy  and  a  protectorate  and  of  a 
great  many  other  impracticable  schemes,  some  of 
which  will  include  attempts  to  obstruct  the  govern- 
ment. By  proposed  legislation  of  various  kinds,  mem- 
bers will  seek  to  accomplish  purposes  that  are  incapa- 
ble of  accomplishment  by  legislation,  but  I  shall  not 
be  discouraged  at  this,  for  that  is  to  be  expected  of  a 
people  who  have  had  no  legislative  experience. 

Ultimately  they  will  reach  the  SAFE  AND  SANE  CON- 
CLUSION that  laws  which  are  to  be  passed  are  those 
which  their  experience  justifies,  and  that  discussion 


538  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

and  analysis  and  calm  consideration  and  self-restraint 
are  all  necessary  for  successful  legislative  measures. 
It  is  said  that  we  are  giving  them  this  legislature  too 
soon.  I  think  my  friend,  Mr.  Colquhoun,  thinks  so. 
Fox  my  part  I  think  not.  The  people  desire  it.  It 
will  be  an  imperfect  but  useful  medium  of  communi- 
cating their  wishes,  and  it  will  offer  the  most  valuable 
school  to  the  intelligent  part  of  the  population  in 
the  science  of  government.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  it  is  not  only  the  90  per  cent,  of  ignorant 
Filipinos  who  need  to  be  tutored  in  the  art  of  self- 
government,  but  the  remaining  10  per  cent.,  even  in- 
cluding the  1  per  cent,  of  the  cultured  and  educated, 
are  sadly  in  need  of  political  education,  and  they  may 
find  it  in  the  popular  assembly  and  may  learn  the 
difference  between  theory  and  practice  in  carrying 
on  a  just  government. 

Does  it  not  seem  rather  unreasonable  now  to  insist 
upon  promising  independence  in  advance  even  of  the 
trial  of  the  test  of  political  capacity  in  the  control  of 
one  legislative  chamber  ? 

But  I  am  asked  how  capable  of  self-government 
must  the  people  become  before  we  give  them  an 

OPPORTUNITY  TO   BE  INDEPENDENT,   if  they  Will.       Is 

it  to  be  a  perfect  government  like  Plato's  Republic  ? 
If  so,  it  will  never  come.  The  government  by  the 
people  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  like  the  government 
by  the  people  of  other  countries,  will  always  have 
defects.  The  only  standard  which  can  be  laid  down 


THE  DUTY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  539 

is  that  the  common  people  shall  be  educated  by  ele- 
mentary education  to  understand  simple  principles  of 
government,  and  to  be  capable  of  forming  an  intelli- 
gent opinion,  which  shall  control  their  officers  while 
in  office.  People  among  whom  there  is  an  intelligent 
public  opinion  are  capable  of  self-government.  That 
is  the  goal  toward  which  we  ought  to  move  in  the 
Philippine  Islands.  If  we  follow  out  the  programme, 
which  I  hope  we  may,  and  it  wins  supporters  as  it 
progresses,  we  may  reasonably  count  on  obtaining  the 
gratitude  of  the  people  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
which  President  McKinley  spoke  of  in  his  instruc- 
tions to  Secretary  Root,  when  he  said : 

"A    HIGH    AND    SACRED    OBLIGATION    rests    Upon    the 

Government  of  the  United  States  to  give  protection 
for  property  and  life,  civil  and  religious  freedom, 
and  wise,  firm  and  unselfish  guidance  in  the  paths  of 
peace  and  prosperity  to  all  the  people  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  I  charge  this  Commission  to  labor  for 
the  full  performance  of  this  obligation,  which  con- 
cerns the  honor  and  conscience  of  their  country,  in 
the  firm  hope  that  through  their  labors  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Philippine  Islands  may  come  to  look 
back  with  gratitude  to  the  day  when  God  gave  vic- 
tory to  American  arms  at  Manila  and  set  their  land 
under  the  sovereignty  and  protection  of  the  people  of 
the  United  States." 


540  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Concerning  the  objection  that  this  is  a  new  busi- 
ness for  the  United  States,  which  will  have  a  demoral- 
izing effect  upon  the  nation,  I  think  no  one  is  able 
to  point  out  any  injury  which  has  thus  far  resulted  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States  except  the  expense 
attendant  upon  the  maintenance  of  law  and  order  in 
the  islands  during  the  insurrection,  and  the  regret- 
table loss  of  life  which  occurred.  Certainly  no  one 
thus  far  can  show  the  baleful  effects  of  that  dreadful 
spirit  of  greed  which  the  opponents  of  the  policy  are 
so  prone  to  see  in  everything  done  with  respect  to  the 
Philippines.  I  challenge  them  to  point  out  anything 
which  has  been  done  to  the  Philippine  Islands, 
either  immediately  under  the  government  there  es- 
tablished, or  by  the  United  States,  which  savors  in 
the  least  of  A  SELFISH  USE  OF  THOSE  ISLANDS  for  the 
benefit,  either  of  the  individuals  in  the  United  States 
or  of  the  Government  itself.  The  only  thing  which 
can  be  seriously  made  the  basis  of  such  a  charge  was 
the  attempt  during  the  present  session  of  Congress 
to  put  in  force  the  coastwise  trading  laws  for  the 
benefit  of  the  shipping  of  the  United  States  in  respect 
to  the  trans-oceanic  trade  between  the  islands  and 
the  United  States,  and  that  by  Act  of  Congress  has 
now  been  postponed  for  two  years  longer.  There  has 
been  a  rebate  provided  of  the  export  duty  on  hemp 
imported  directly  from  the  islands  to  the  United 
States.  This  has  not  affected  injuriously  the  trade  of 
the  islands,  because  the  demand  for  hemp  is  so  great 


TAXPAYING  CAPACITY.  Ml 

that  the  islands  have  a  monopoly  in  respect  to  it. 
There  has  unexpectedly  been  caused  by  the  rebate  a 
reduction  of  the  income  in  the  islands  of  about  $250,- 
000,  because  the  equivalent  which  was  provided  as  a 
counter  benefit,  to  wit,  the  duties  to  be  collected  on 
imports  from  the  islands  into  the  United  States,  has 
not  equaled  the  aggregate  rebate  on  the  hemp.  This, 
however,  was  a  miscalculation  by  the  legislators  that 
was  pardonable  and  can  easily  be  rectified.  In  every 
other  respect  the  legislation  which  has  been  enacted 
has  been  in  favor  of  the  islands,  including  a  gift 
of  three  millions  of  dollars  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
lieving distress  there.  The  attitude  of  those  who  sup- 
port the  Government  in  its  policy  is  altruistic.  It  is 
of  one  who  out  of  a  FEELING  FRIENDLY  TO  THE  FILI- 
PINOS would  sacrifice  much  to  accomplish  the  pur- 
poses of  the  Administration  there.  It  is  a  feeling 
which  does  the  nation  credit,  and  a  feeling  that  a 
nation  of  the  wealth  and  power  that  this  nation  has 
may  well  afford  to  encourage. 

The  islands  themselves  give  every  indication  of  fur- 
nishing revenue  sufficient  to  carry  out  the  plans  which 
the  United  States  may  properly  carry  out  in  the  ma- 
terial and  intellectual  development  of  the  country  and 
its  people.  The  taxpaying  capacity  of  the  country 
is,  of  course,  determined  by  that  which  it  produces 
for  domestic  and  foreign  use.  For  the  last  two  or 
three  years  the  wealth  produced  in  the  islands  has 


542  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

been  seriously  impaired  and  reduced,  not  only  by 
the  war  and  the  cholera,  but  also  and  chiefly  by  the 
loss  of  draft  animals,  ninety  per  cent,  of  which  have 
succumbed  to  the  rinderpest.  Agriculture  has  been 
dependent  upon  such  animals  and  the  recovery  from 
this  blow  must  necessarily  be  slow.  Congress  appro- 
priated three  millions  of  dollars  to  assist  the  islands 
in  restocking  plantations,  but  the  enormous  difficulties 
attending  the  importation  from  other  countries  of 
cattle  which  are  able  to  live  in  the  Philippines  are 
only  known  to  those  who  have  attempted  it.  I  am 
glad  to  say,  however,  that  our  scientists  in  the  islands 
have  discovered  a  method  of  preventing  a  recurrence 
and  spread  of  the  disease,  so  that  when  the  plantations 
are  restocked  rinderpest  will  have  NO  TERRORS  FOR 
THE  FARMERS.  With  normal  conditions  in  agricul- 
ture, when  the  cattle  shall  have  been  restored  by 
breeding  and  otherwise  to  their  usual  number,  the 
islands  will  always  be  self-supporting,  and  will,  doubt- 
less, furnish  a  surplus  of  revenue  with  which  to  meet 
the  demands  for  improvements  which  present  them- 
selves in  every  part  of  the  islands. 

The  Philippine  Archipelago  is  the  only  country  in 
which  can  be  produced  what  is  known  as  Manila 
hemp,  or  what  is  called  in  the  Spanish  language 
"abaca."  .  .  .  Of  the  forty-one  provinces  of 
the  Philippine  Islands,  at  least  fifteen  now  produce 
commercial  quantities  of  hemp.  To-day,  owing  to 
the  insufficient  means  of  communication  and  trans- 


NATURAL  RESOURCES.  543 

portation,  many  fields  of  hemp  are  allowed  to  rot  and 
are  not  stripped  or  used.  In  many  of  the  provinces 
there  is  wild  hemp  which  is  not  so  good  in  texture  and 
which  it  would  be  necessary  to  replace  by  cultivated 
plants  were  the  opportunity  offered  to  put  it  on  the 
market.  From  experiments  by  our  Agricultural  Bu- 
reau, I  have  no  doubt  that  the  number  of  provinces  in 
which  hemp  could  be  raised  might  be  doubled.  THE 
DEMAND  FOR  HEMP  is  so  GREAT  that  while  an  increase 
in  its  production  might  reduce  the  price,  the  total 
product  would  far  exceed  in  value  that  which  the  sta- 
tistics now  show. 

Many  parts  of  the  islands  arc  very  rich  in  cocoa- 
nuts.  ...  In  the  province  of  Laguna  within  the 
last  two  years,  since  the  war  was  over,  there  have  been 
planted  more  than  five  times  tlie  number  of  trees 
which  were  there  before.  There  is  a  constant  market 
for  copra,  which  is  the  dried  meat  of  the  cocoanut, 
and  the  price  is  rising.  Since  the  demand  for  hemp 
and  cocoanuts  has  increased  so  largely  planters  have 
abandoned  the  raising  of  rice,  preferring  to  buy  their 
food  out  of  the  profit  of  the  hemp  or  cocoanut  indus- 
try. Therefore,  for  ten  or  fifteen  years  it  has  been 
the  habit  of  the  islands  to  import  rice,  although  there 
are  no  islands  where  rice  will  grow  to  better  advantage 
than  in  the  Philippines.  The  amount  of  importation, 
however,  was  comparatively  small  until  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  draft  cattle,  three  years  ago,  which  re- 
duced the  actual  amount  of  rice  production  in  the 


544  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

islands  far  below  what  was  necessary  to  feed  the  peo- 
ple, and  during  the  last  year  about  $12,000,000,  gold, 
had  to  be  expended  in  importing  rice  from  French 
China. 

The  sugar  and  tobacco  industries  in  the  islands  are 

CAPABLE  OF  A   CONSIDERABLE  INCREASE.       The  Island 

of  Kegros  contains  sugar  land  as  rich  as  any  in  the 
world,  and  the  provinces  of  Cagayan,  Isabela  and 
Union,  contain  tobacco  lands  which,  next  to  Cuba, 
produce  the  best  tobacco  in  the  world,  but  the  trouble 
is  that  the  markets  for  such  sugar  a-nd  tobacco  have 
been,  by  tariffs  imposed  in  various  countries,  very 
much  reduced.  Should  the  markets  of  the  United 
States  be  opened  to  the  Philippines,  it  is  certain  that 
both  the  sugar  and  the  tobacco  industry  would  become 
thriving,  and  although  the  total  amount  of  the  product 
in  each  would  probably  not  affect  the  American  mar- 
ket at  all,  so  extensive  is  the  demand  here  for  both 
tobacco  and  sugar  it  would  mean  the  difference  be- 
tween poverty  and  prosperity  in  the  islands.  I  know 
that  the  reduction  of  the  tariff  for  this  purpose  is 
much  opposed  by  the  interests  which  represent  beet 
sugar  and  tobacco,  but  I  believe  that  a  great  majority 
of  the  people  of  the  United  States  are  in  favor  of 
opening  the  markets  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  con- 
scious that  it  will  not  destroy  either  the  beet  sugar  or 
the  tobacco  industry  of  this  country,  and  feeling  that 
as  long  as  we  maintain  the  association  which  we  now 
have  with  the  Philippine  Islands,  IT  is  OUR  DUTY  TO 


TRADE  RELATIONS.  545 

GIVE  THEM  THE  BENEFIT  of  the  markets  of  the  United 
States  and  bring  them  as  close  to  our  people  and  our 
trade  as  possible.  Nothing  else  will  justify  the  appli- 
cation of  the  coastwise  trading  laws  to  the  trans- 
oceanic trade  between  the  United  States  and  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  but  if  they  are  invited  to  partake  of 
the  benefits  of  the  protection  theory,  they  may  well  be 
subjected  to  the  rule  that  as  between  the  United  States 
and  themselves  the  products  are  to  be  transferred  in 
American  bottoms. 

Another  immense  source  of  wealth  in  the  islands 

is    the    ALMOST    INEXHAUSTIBLE    SUPPLY    of    the    HlOSt 

beautiful  woods,  of  rubber,  and  of  the  most  valuable 
gums.  These  sources  of  wealth  are  hardly  developed. 
And  now  what  as  to  the  existing  trade  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Philippines.  It  is  still 
quite  small,  not  exceeding  five  millions  in  any  one 
year  of  merchandise  transferred  from  the  United 
States  to  the  Philippines,  but  increasing  largely  in 
the  products  transferred  from  the  Philippines  to  the 
United  States.  The  latter  increase,  however,  is  not  a 
natural  one.  It  is  brought  about  by  Congressional 
legislation  already  mentioned,  which  confers  the  bene- 
fit of  $7.40  a  ton  rebate  from  export  tax  upon  all 
hemp  transported  directly  from  the  Philippines  to  the 
United  States.  The  total  business  done  between  the 
United  States  and  the  Philippines  is  something  like 
seventeen  millions.  With  the  restoration  of  normal 
conditions  in  the  islands,  with  the  construction  of 


546  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

railways  and  other  material  development,  then  I  have 
no  doubt  that  this  trade  between  the  United  States 
and  the  islands  would  be  trebled  in  the  course  of  five 
years. 

The  conditions  with  respect  to  the  business  of  the 
United  States  merchants  in  the  islands  to-day  are  un- 
fortunate, and  their  cause  can  easily  be  traced.  The 
Government  of  the  United  States  went  into  the 
islands  under  a  distinct  promise  that  it  would  gov- 
ern the  Philippines  for  the  benefit  of  the  Filipinos ; 
that  it  would  EXTEND  SELF-GOVEKNMENT  TO  THE  FILI- 
PINOS as  rapidly  as  they  showed  themselves  fit  for  it, 
and  that  as  many  Filipinos  as  possible  would  be  used 
in  the  personnel  of  the  Government.  This  has  always 
been  the  attitude  of  the  Government,  and  never,  so 
far  as  I  know,  has  there  been  a  single  step  of  de- 
parture from  it.  It  was  the  attitude  declared  before 
the  war  of  insurrection  began,  while  it  was  pending, 
and  at  its  close,  and  no  resistance  on  the  part  of  the 
natives  has  varied  our  position  in  that  regard.  This 
policy  did  not  meet,  as  was  natural,  the  ready  assent 
of  all  the  army  or  of  those  persons  who  were  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  army.  The  adventuresome  spirits  who 
followed  the  army  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a 
business  in  its  wake  found  that  they  had  all  that  they 
could  do  to  supply  the  demand  made  by  the  army  for 
American  goods,  and  as  American  capital  came  in 
driblets  or  in  larger  sums  it  was  turned  into  the  busi- 
ness of  supplying  the  army  with  those  things  which 


THE  LOCAL  BUSINESS.  547 

the  Government  did  not  supply.  Four  or  five  trading 
companies  were  thus  organized,  embracing  substan- 
tially all  the  American  enterprise  that  has  appeared 
in  the  islands  during  the  first  three  or  four  years 
of  American  occupation.  American  merchants  thus 
situated  easily  CAUGHT  THE  FEELING  OF  HOSTILITY 
and  contempt  felt  by  many  of  the  soldiers  for  the 
Filipinos,  and  were  most  emphatic  in  condemning  the 
policy  of  the  Government  in  attempting  to  attract  the 
Filipinos  and  make  them  so  far  as  might  be  a  part 
of  the  new  civil  order.  The  American  newspapers 
which  were  established  readily  took  the  tone  of  their 
advertisers  and  their  subscribers,  and  hence  it  is  that 
the  American  community  in  the  Philippines  to-day  is 
largely  an  anti-Filipino  community.  The  75,000  sol- 
diers whose  demands  for  supplies  made  their  busi- 
ness so  profitable,  have  now  been  reduced  to  15,000, 
and  the  market  which  made  the  American  merchants 
for  a  time  independent  of  the  Filipinos  has  now 
almost  entirely  disappeared.  The  condemnation  by 
such  merchants  of  the  Civil  Government  continues, 
and  they  do  not  hesitate  to  make  the  Government  the 
scapegoat  for  the  failure  of  business  to  improve.  The 
fact  is  that  their  customers  have  gone  back  to  the 
United  States  and  that  their  attitude  towards  the  Fili- 
pinos is  such  that  the  Filipinos  are  not  disposed  to 
patronize  them.  This  is  unfortunate,  and  there  must 
come  into  the  islands  a  new  set  of  merchants  who  shall 
view  the  situation  from  an  entirely  different  stand- 


648  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

point.  There  are  7,600,000  Filipinos.  Of  these,  the 
7,000,000  Christian  Filipinos  are  imitative,  anxious 
for  new  ideas,  willing  to  accept  them,  willing  to  fol- 
low American  styles,  American  sports,  American 
dress  and  American  customs.  A  large  amount  of  cot- 
ton goods  is  imported  into  the  islands  each  year,  but 
this  is  nearly  all  from  England  and  Germany.  There 
is  no  reason  why  these  cotton  goods  should  not  come 
from  America,  except  the  fact  that  there  are  no 
American  houses  in  the  islands  that  have  devoted  their 

ATTENTION  TO  WINNING  FlLIPINO  TKADE.        I  am  not 

a  business  man,  but  I  know  enough  to  assert  that  it 
is  not  the  best  way  to  attract  custom  from  an  alien 
people  to  call  them  names,  to  make  fun  of  them,  and 
to  decry  every  effort  towards  their  advancement  and 
development.  In  other  words,  the  American  mer- 
chants in  the  Philippines  have  gotten  off  on  the  wrong 
foot.  There  should  be  a  radical  change. 

There  are  a  few  projected  railroad  lines  in  the 
Philippines  which  it  would  be  possible  to  induce  capi- 
tal to  build  without  a  guaranty  of  income,  but  it  is 
wiser,  it  seems  to  the  Commission,  to  attempt  to  in- 
troduce a  general  system  of  railways  than  to  have  a 
link  built  here  and  a  link  built  there  and  to  await 
the  process  of  time  before  trunk  lines  shall  be  es- 
tablished. For  instance,  it  is  quite  probable  that  a 
short  line  of  forty  or  fifty  miles  would  be  constructed 
without  a  guaranty  in  the  province  of  Legaspi,  where 
is  the  rich  hemp  business  and  where  it  has  been  cus- 


THE  PROJECTED  RAILROADS.  519 

ternary  during  the  last  two  or  three  hemp  seasons  to 
pay  forty  dollars  Mexican  a  day  for  a  carabao  cart; 
so,  perhaps,  it  would  be  possible  to  secure  the  con- 
struction of  a  line  without  a  guaranty  from  Manila 
south  to  Batangas,  though  of  this  I  am  not  certain. 
With  the  hope,  however,  of  bringing  capital  in  con- 
siderable amount  to  the  islands,  a  bill  has  been  pre- 
pared, which  has  passed  the  House,  authorizing  the 
Philippine  Government  to  grant  FRANCHISES  FOR  THE 
CONSTRUCTION  OF  RAILWAYS  with  a  guaranty  of  in- 
come of  not  more  than  five  per  cent,  on  the  amount 
actually  invested  for  not  exceeding  thirty  years.  In 
most  cases  a  guaranty  of  a  less  percentage  would  be 
sufficient,  but  my  impression  is  that  with  respect  to 
the  main  trunk  line  from  Aparri  to  Manila,  the  diffi- 
culties of  construction  and  the  delay  in  securing  a 
profitable  business  would  probably  require  an  as- 
surance of  five  per  cent,  dividends.  The  opposition 
of  those  who  oppose  the  investment  of  any  American 
capital  in  the  islands  which  shall  furnish  a  motive 
for  a  longer  association  between  the  two  countries 
than  is  absolutely  necessary  may  postpone  the  passage 
of  the  bill  until  the  next  session  of  Congress.*  I  shall 
deeply  regret  the  delay,  but  I  am  not  discouraged,  for 
as  long  as  I  continue  in  my  present  position  I  expect 

*  The  Commission  has  been  granted  authority  to  make 
the  contracts  in  question  and  construction  will  be  com- 
menced upon  the  contemplated  railroad  system  early  in 
1906.— AUTHOR. 


550  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

to  press  the  legitimate  claims  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  upon  a  just  and  generous  Government  for 
such  authority  in  the  local  government  as  will  permit 
a  proper  development  of  the  material  resources  of  the 
islands;  and  the  delay  in  legislation,  which  is  inci- 
dent, not  to  the  opposition  of  a  majority  but  to  the 
opposition  of  a  small  minority,  while  it  is  apt  to  try 
one's  patience,  ought  nevertheless  not  to  discourage. 

I  come  now  to  THE  QUESTION  OF  LABOR,  which  has 
been  made  the  basis  for  the  most  discouraging  ac- 
counts of  conditions  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The 
Filipino  is  a  tropical  laborer.  In  times  past  a  large 
amount  of  rice  has  been  raised  in  the  islands,  a  large 
amount  of  tobacco,  a  large  amount  of  sugar,  and  a 
large  amount  of  hemp,  and  they  all  involve,  as  a  ma- 
terial part  of  the  cost  of  their  production,  the  labor 
of  the  natives.  The  Chinamen,  who  have  been  said 
by  mistaken  persons  to  number  a  million  or  a  million 
and  a  half  in  the  islands,  in  fact  do  not  number  100,- 
000,  and  none  of  them  do  any  agricultural  work  of 
any  kind  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  Filipino  is 
naturally  an  agriculturist.  When  you  go  through  his 
village  in  the  middle  of  the  day  you  will  probably  see 
him  lounging  about  the  window  or  on  the  seat  in  front 
of  his  house,  and  you  will  ascribe  to  him  the  laziest 
habits,  because  you  do  not  know  that  he  has  been 
up  at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  has  worked 
from  that  time  until  nine  or  ten  in  the  fields,  and 
that  he  will  begin  work  again  at  four  o'clock  and  work 


THE  LABOR  QUESTION.  551 

for  two  or  three  hours  until  sundown  or  later.  The 
American  merchant  is  loud  in  his  denunciation  of  the 
insufficiency  of  the  Filipino  laborer.  This  is  because 

the  PRICE  OF  LABOK  HAS  PKOBABLY  DOUBLED  since  the 

Americans  went  there,  and  he  has  heard  the  tale  of 
how  cheap  labor  was  before  the  Spanish  regime  ended. 
He  also  compared  the  cost  of  labor  in  the  Philippine 
Islands  with  that  in  Hong  Kong,  and  he  finds  that 
is  very  considerably  less  all  over  China.  I  am  not 
contending  that  the  labor  in  the  Philippines  is  as  good 
as  Chinese  labor,  for  that  labor  is  the  best  in  the 
world,  probably,  when  economy  in  wages  and  effi- 
ciency in  product  are  considered,  but  what  I  wish  to 
dispute  is  that  the  labor  conditions  in  the  Philippines 
are  hopeless.  The  city  of  Manila  has  under  its  con- 
trol, and  in  its  employment,  about  3,000  laborers,  and 
they  are  paid  all  the  way  from  fifty  cents  Mexican  to 
$1.25  Mexican,  and  there  is  no  complaint  whatever 
on  the  part  of  the  authorities  that  their  work  is  not 
properly  and  well  done.  The  Quartermaster's  De- 
partment of  the  army  has  about  the  same  number, 
and  their  reports  of  the  efficiency  of  Filipino  labor 
are  exceedingly  encouraging.  We  have  now  employed 
really  as  coolies  on  the  Bengiiet  Road  in  the  most 
difficult  drilling  and  construction  work  about  3,000 
natives,  and  while  their  efficiency  is  nothing  like  that 
of  the  American,  in  the  accomplishment  of  work  in 
proportion  to  the  pay,  they  probably  get  through  about 
as  much.  The  men  who  are  constructing  the  harbor 


552  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

works  at  Manila — The  Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Gulf 
Company — have  employed  upwards  of  800  to  1,000 
Filipinos  in  their  quarries.  At  first  they  found  it 
very  difficult  to  secure  workmen,  but  now  they  HAVE 
MOKE  LABOR  THAN  THEY  NEED.  They  use  about  eight 
per  cent,  of  white  foremen  and  the  rest  natives.  They 
give  to  the  natives  houses,  furnish  a  church,  a  band,  a 
cock  pit  and  a  school.  On  their  fiesta  days  they  give 
them  vacation.  They  have  less  desertions,  less  absen- 
teeism, than  with  Americans.  These  experiments 
only  show  that  the  solution  of  the  labor  problem  in 
the  Philippines  is  teaching  the  Filipinos  how  to  work. 
Sir  William  Van  Home  reports  that  he  found  much 
difficulty  originally  in  the  construction  of  the  Cuban 
railways  because  the  natives  were  not  acquainted  with 
how  the  work  should  be  done,  but  that  by  means  of 
white  foremen  they  were  easily  taught,  and  that  then 
they  made  good  laborers.  I  feel  sure  that  the  same 
thing  will  prove  to  be  true  of  the  Filipinos. 

There  is  doubtless  a  great  deal  of  mineral  wealth  in 
the  islands,  but  it  will  only  be  available  after  trans- 
portation shall  have  been  introduced.  It  is  not  an 
island  with  a  bonanza  mine  in  it,  though  at  some  dis- 
tant day  such  a  vein  may  be  discovered  there.  There 
is  CERTAINLY  COAL  IN  THE  ISLANDS  in  considerable 
quantities.  There  is  now  between  the  islands  a  con- 
siderable inter-island  trade,  and  there  are  quite  a  large 
number  of  ships  engaged  therein.  Without  it  the 
islands  could  not  live ;  it  is  their  arterial  circulation. 


CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS.  553 

The  present  system  might  be  much  improved  by  in- 
troducing American  generous  methods  of  dealing 
with  the  public.  About  two  and  a  half  millions  of 
capital  has  been  invested  in  a  street  railway  in 
Manila,  which  will  be  completed  next  Thanksgiving 
Day.*  This  will  certainly  change  one  of  the  annoying 
and  expensive  features  of  Manila  life,  and  will  give 
to  the  residents  of  the  city  opportunity  to  cut  down 
their  present  expense  of  living  at  least  twenty-five  per 
cent.  There  is  no  city  in  the  world  where  there  is  so 
much  traveling  done  in  carriages,  due  to  the  fact  that 
people  may  not  walk  about  safely  under  the  tropical 
sun.  The  presence  of  a  street  railway  will  do  away 
with  the  necessity  for  many  of  these  conveyances,  and 
the  streets  will  be  less  used  and  their  condition  much 
improved. 

There  is  a  sufficient  CONTINUOUS  FALL  OF  WATER  IN 
STREAMS  within  practicable  distance  of  Manila  to  fur- 
nish electrical  power  exceeding  fifteen  thousand  horse 
power.  With  the  high  price  of  coal  this  is  an  im- 
portant aid  to  manufacturers. 

The  English  houses  and  the  Spanish  houses  who 
have  dealt  in  the  export  trade  in  the  islands  have 
earned  large  profits  during  the  occupancy  of  the 
United  States. 

It  is  said  that  the  health  of  the  islands  is  such  as 
to  preclude  Americans  from  going  there.  This  is  not 

*  It  is  now  operating  about  thirty-five  miles  of  line  in  a 
highly  satisfactory  manner. — AUTHOR. 


554  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

true.  The  climate  does  prevent  one  from  going  out 
into  the  sun  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  so  prevents 
his  working  in  the  fields  as  a  laboring  man,  but  it  is 
entirely  possible  for  one  to  live  in  the  islands  for 
years,  and  if  he  does  not  neglect  the  ordinary  rules 
of  hygiene,  to  be  free  from  bad  health.  The  province 
of  Benguet,  which  is  150  miles  from  Manila,  and 
which  will  soon  be  reached  by  a  railroad  and  an  elec- 
tric road  in  twelve  hours,  offers  a  climate  quite  like 
the  summer  climate  of  the  Adirondacks  or  of  Canada. 
Under  the  land  regulations,  which  go  into  force  at 
the  time  of  the  adjournment  of  Congress,  A  SUMMER 
CAPITAL  is  TO  BE  ESTABLISHED  at  Baguio,  and  town 
lots  in  the  same  place  will  be  offered  at  public  auc- 
tion. Americans  engaged  in  business  may,  at  small 
cost,  buy  lots  and  erect  houses  and  live  there  as  many 
months  of  the  year  as  they  choose,  except  the  months 
of  August  and  September,  which  are  usually  so  wet 
as  to  make  it  unprofitable.  During  remaining  months 
of  the  year  the  climate  is  beautiful,  the  temperature 
going  down  as  low  as  35  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and 
rarely,  if  ever,  reaching  80  degrees. 

It  is  estimated  that  not  more  than  five  millions  of 
acres  of  land  are  owned  by  natives  in  the  islands,  and 
that  the  remainder,  sixty-five  millions,  is  owned  by 
the  Government.  This  remainder  will,  under  the  land 
regulations,  be  opened  for  settlement  and  purchase 
at  the  adjournment  of  the  present  session  of  Con- 
gress. There  is  every  prospect  that  the  land  will  be 


THE  REQUISITE  OF  PROSPERITY.  555 

taken  up  by  both  Filipinos  and  Americans.  The 
maximum  limitation  for  purchase  by  a  company  is 
2,500  acres.  This  limitation  is  much  too  low  for 
the  cultivation  of  sugar,  but  is  sufficiently  extensive 
for  the  cultivation  of  other  products.  There  is  a  pro- 
vision in  the  law  by  which  irrigation  companies  may 
own  stock  in  land  companies,  so  that  probably  the  lim- 
itation may  be  evaded  if  private  profit  requires.  THE 

FUTURE    OF    THE    PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS    of    COUrse    it 

would  be  dangerous  to  prophesy  with  certainty,  but 
with  a  change  in  the  hygienic  conditions  that  surround 
life,  due  to  an  effective  board  of  health,  with  a  sup- 
ply of  pure  water  from  the  sinking  of  driven  wells  all 
over  the  country,  which  the  pending  bill  in  Congress 
will  encourage,  I  feel  sure  that  the  population  will 
rapidly  increase. 

We  hold  the  Philippines  for  the  benefit  of  Fili- 
pinos and  we  are  not  entitled  to  pass  a  single  act  or 
approve  a  single  measure  that  has  not  that  as  its  chief 
purpose.  But  it  so  happens,  and  it  fortunately  so 
happens,  that  generally  everything  we  do  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Filipinos  and  the  Philippines  will  only 
make  their  association  with  the  United  States  more 
profitable  to  the  United  States.  I  do  not  base  my 
prayer  for  a  continuance  of  the  present  policy  toward 
the  Philippine  Islands  on  selfish  grounds,  but  as  this 
is  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  as  it  is  naturally 
interested  in  the  possibilities  of  commerce  in  these  dis- 
tant islands,  I  have  felt  justified  in  referring  more 


656  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

than  heretofore  to  the  industrial  conditions  existing 
there  and  the  possibility  of  improvement  and  the  in- 
crease of  trade  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Philippines. 

THE  FIRST  REQUISITE  OF  PROSPERITY  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  is  tranquility,  and  this  should  be  evi- 
denced by  a  well-ordered  government.  The  Filipinos 
must  be  taught  the  advantages  of  such  a  government, 
and  they  should  learn  from  the  government  which  is 
given  them  the  disadvantages  that  arise  to  everybody 
in  the  country  from  political  agitation  for  a  change 
in  the  form  of  government  in  the  immediate  future. 
Hence  it  is  that  I  have  ventured  to  oppose  with  all 
the  argument  that  I  could  bring  to  bear  the  petition 
to  the  political  conventions  asking  that  independence 
be  promised  to  the  Filipinos.  It  is  not  that  I  am 
opposed  to  independence  in  the  islands,  should  the 
people  of  the  Philippines  desire  independence  when 
they  are  fitted  for  it,  but  it  is  that  the  great  present 
need  in  the  islands  is  tranquility,  the  great  present 
need  in  the  islands  is  the  building  up  of  a  permanent, 
well-ordered  government,  the  great  present  need  in 
the  islands  is  the  increase  of  the  saving  remnant  of 
conservative  Filipinos  whose  aid  in  uplifting  and 
maintaining  the  present  government  on  a  partly  popu- 
lar and  strictly  civil  liberty  basis,  shall  be  secured.  A 
promise  such  as  that  which  is  petitioned  for  cannot 
but  introduce  at  once  into  the  politics  of  the  islands 
the  issue  of  independence,  of  present  fitness  for  self- 


THE  BROADER  POLICY.  557 

government,  and  will  frighten  away  from  the  sup- 
port of  the  present  government  the  conservative  ele- 
ment which  is  essential  to  its  success,  and  yet  which 
is  always  timid  lest  by  a  change  bringing  the  violent 
and  the  irreconcilable  to  the  front,  they  shall  suffer 
by  reason  of  their  prominence  in  aid  of  the  present 
government.  The  promise  to  give  independence  helps 
no  one.  THERE  is  NO  NEED  OF  THAT  PROMISE  to 
secure  tranquility  because  we  have  tranquility  in  the 
islands.  It  is  certain  to  be  misunderstood  as  a  prom- 
ise to  be  complied  with  in  the  present  generation,  and 
if,  as  is  probable,  the  people  shall  not  be  fitted  for  self- 
government  in  the  present  or  the  next  generation,  then 
the  failure  to  give  it  will  be  regarded  as  a  breach. 
Why  not  let  the  politics  of  the  islands  take  care  of 
themselves  ?  Why  should  the  good  people  who  signed 
the  petition  intermeddle  with  something  the  effect  of 
which  they  are  very  little  able  to  understand.  Why 
not  take  the  broader  policy,  which  is  that  of  doing 
everything  beneficial  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  of 
giving  them  a  full  market,  of  offering  them  an  op- 
portunity to  have  railroads  built  extensively  through 
the  islands,  and  of  having  a  tranquility  which  is  essen- 
tial to  the  development  of  their  business  and  their 
prosperity ;  why  not  insist  on  the  spread  of  the  educa- 
tional system,  of  an  improvement  in  the  health  laws, 
and  subject  everything  that  is  done  in  the  islands  to 
an  examination  as  to  whether  it  is  beneficial  to  the 
Filipino  people,  and  then  when  all  has  been  done 


558  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

for  the  Philippines  that  a  government  can  do,  and 
they  have  been  elevated  and  taught  the  dignity  of 
labor,  the  wisdom  oi  civil  liberty  and  self-restraint  in 
the  political  control  indispensable  to  the  enjoyment  of 
civil  liberty,  when  they  have  learned  the  principles  of 
successful  popular  self-government  from  a  gradually 
enlarged  experience  therein,  we  can  discuss  the  ques- 
tion whether  independence  is  what  they  desire  and 
grant  it,  or  whether  they  prefer  the  retention  of  a 
closer  association  with  the  country  which,  by  its  guid- 
ance, has  unselfishly  led  them  on  to  better  conditions. 


INDEX. 


INDEX 


Abaca,  47,  65. 

conditions    of    culture,    287- 

89. 

expenses  and  profits  of 
cultivation,  292-95,  542, 
543, 

export  trade,  259-62. 
habitat,  286. 

hemp  districts,   286,  287. 
method    of   extraction,    289- 

92. 

Aborigines,  vide  Negritos. 
Abra,  Province  of,  33. 
Agno  River,  30. 
Agriculture,   285-345. 
abaca,  286-95. 
cacao,  334-44. 
coffee,  323-30. 
copra  and  cocoanut  oil,  311- 

19. 

cotton,  297,  298. 
field  for  Americans,  351-53. 
Filipino    laborers,    349-51. 
maguey,  296,  297. 
minor  products,   344-47. 
primitive  methods,  347-49. 
rice,  331-34. 
sugar,  .298-301. 
tobacco,  301-10. 
Agusan  River,  59. 
Albay,    Province    of,    47,    48, 

388. 

Alcaldes,  182,  183. 
Ambos     Camarines,     Province 

of,  45,  46. 
American  administration,  205- 

29. 
administration     of     justice, 

213,  214. 

autonomy.  517,  518. 
bonded     indebtedness,     228, 
229. 


American  admin. — Continued. 

census,  230-38. 

central  government  and  leg- 
islative authority,   205-09. 

civil  service,  215,  216. 

currency,  219,  220. 

education,  218,  219,  519-21. 

friars,  526-29. 

government  of  Manila,  227, 
228. 

government  positions,  217. 

health,   231. 

judiciary  system,  523,  524. 

means     of     communication, 
220,  221. 

navigation,  230,  231. 

popular  assembly,  537. 

provincial      and     municipal 
governments,  210-13. 

public  works,  521-23. 

review     of,     by     Secretary 
Taft,  517-57. 

sources  of  revenue,  230. 

suppression     of     ladronism, 

519. 

Apo  Volcano,  60,  61. 
Audencia,  192-94. 

Bajaus,  105. 

Bamboo,  246. 

Banditti,  472,  473,  519,  525. 

Bataan,  Province  of,  37. 

Batangas.  Province  of,  42.  43. 

Bataan,  Province  of,  42,  43. 

Benguet,  Province  of,  34,   35, 

278,  385.  387. 
Binondo,  410-12. 
Bohol,  Island  of — 
characteristics     of     natives, 

483,  484. 
physical  features,  resources, 

etc.,  53,  54. 


561 


562 


INDEX. 


Bohol,  Island  of — Continued. 

population  and  area,  18. 

Siquijor,  484-86. 

uprising  in,  154,  155. 
Bonded  indebtedness,  228,  229. 
British  invasion,  151,   152. 
Bulacan,  Province  of,  39,  40. 

Cacao,  334-44. 

cultivation,  335-37. 

expense  and  profits,  337-44. 
Cagayan,  Province  of,  32,  33. 

River,  30. 

Carabao,  348,  349,  441-43. 
Cathedral,  402-04. 
Cattle-raising,  381-85,  478. 
Cavite,  397,  398. 

insurrection,  156,  157. 

Province  of,  412. 
Cebu  City,  479-82,  522. 
Cebu,  Island  of — 

capital,  479-82. 

physical  features,  resources, 
etc.,  54,  55. 

population  and  area.  18. 

proposed  railroad,  57. 

uprisings  in,  483. 
Census,  230-38. 
Chinese — 

conflicts  with,  145-47. 

costume  and  manner  of  life, 
414,  415. 

expulsion  of,  147. 

immigration,  144. 

influence  on  trade,  147,  148. 

invasion,  96,  97. 
Churches,  405. 

Civil  service  system,  115-17. 
Climate,  69-71. 
Coal,  44,  48,  387-89. 
Cock-fighting,  418-20,  453,  454. 
Cocoanut  oil.  311-13,  468. 
Coffee,  67,  274,  275. 

culture,  323-26. 

in   Benguet,   327-30, 


Commerce,     224,    241-81, 

balance  of  trade,  253-57. 
export  trade,  257-75. 
internal,  466. 
Manila's  future,  423-26. 
Manila    opened    to    foreign, 

247. 

map,  425. 
Real     Coinpania     Filipinas, 

244-47. 

trade  with  Mexico,  241-44. 
transportation,   276-81. 
Copper,  68,  385,  386. 
Copra,    66,    273,    274,    313-19, 

468, 

Costumes,  412,  414. 
Cotton  fiber,  297,  298. 
Cultivation,  area  of,  358,  359; 

vide  various  products. 
Currency  system,  219,  220. 

Datos,  vide  Moros. 
Dutch  attack  the  Colony,  143, 
144. 

Early  inhabitants,  82-90. 
Earthquakes,  28,  29,  399,  400. 
Education    of    the    Filipinos, 

218,  219,   519-21. 
Elcano,    Juan    Sebastian,    the 

first    circumnavigator    of 

the  world,  122. 
Encomenderos,    113,    114,    181, 

182. 
Export   trade,   257-75, 


Fauna  of  the  Philippines,  63, 

64. 
Filipinos— 

as  laborers.  3^9-51,  550-52. 
character  of.  90-100. 
education,  218,  219. 
fitness   for   self-government, 
529-34. 


INDEX. 


563 


Filipinos — Continued. 
home  life,  435-41. 
pastimes,  448-60. 
peasant   character,   443-45. 
superstitions,   445-47. 
Flora  of  the  Philippines,  64-5. 
Forests,  361,  362,  366-76. 
Forestry   regulations,   375-76. 
Friars,  The — 

attempts  to  Christianize  Ja- 
pan, 140-42,  149,  150. 
conflicts  with  civil  authori- 
ties, 132-36,  527. 
important   services   of,    137- 

39. 

loss  of  influence,  139,  140. 
purchase     of     their     lands, 

221,  222,  528,  529. 
rise  in  power  of,  129-32,  526. 

Gold,  46,  386,  387. 
Governors-general,  180,  181. 
Guimaras,  Island  of,  467-69. 
Gutta-percha,  385-87. 

Health,  226. 

Highways,     187-89,    221,     278, 

279,  521-23. 
Holy  Child  of  Cebu,  480. 

Igorots,  100-04. 

I  locos  Norte,   Province  of,  33, 

34. 

Ilocos  Sur,  Province  of,  33,  34. 
Iloilo,  466-71,  522. 
Import   trade,    253-57, 

Indigo,  344,  345. 
Internal  dissensions,  128-36. 
Iron,  68,  387. 

Isabella,   Province  of,    32,   33, 
381. 

Jolo,  vide  Sulu. 
Judiciary       system,       195-200, 
213-14,  523,  524. 


Juramentados,  499-500. 
Katipunan  Sociey,  162. 

Labor,  vide  Filipinos. 

La  Union,  Province  of,  33,  34. 

Laguna  de  Bombon,  vide  Lake 

Taal. 

Laguna,  Province  of,  40,  41. 
Lake  Taal,  22,  23. 
Legaspi,     Miguel     Lopez     de, 

first  governor,  123. 
subjects    the    natives,    124, 

125. 
Lepanto-Bontoc,    Province    of, 

33,  385,  387. 
Leyte,  Island  of — 
industries,  486,  487. 
physical  features,  resources, 

etc.,  53. 

population  and  area,  18. 
proposed  railroad,  53. 
uprising  in,  155. 
Li  Ma  Hung  invades  the  Phil- 
ippines, 126,  127. 
Lumber  vide  woods,  commer- 
cial. 

Lumber  industry,  369-76. 
Luzon,  Island  of — 
descripive,  431-60. 
mountains,  21. 
physical  features,  20-2. 
population  and  area,  18. 
provincial    division     of    re- 
sources, 32-48. 
railroad  extension,  49. 
rivers,  29-31. 


Magellan,  early  career  of,  120. 
discovers     the     Philippines, 

122. 

Maguey  fiber,  296,  297. 
Maize,  345. 
Malayan      migrations,      79-82, 

491-93. 


564 


INDEX. 


Manila — 

captured  by  British,  151. 
city  improvements,  227. 
commercial    future,   423-27. 
description  of  old  and  new, 

391-422. 

harbor    improvements,    225. 
map  of,  401. 

map    of   proposed    improve- 
ments, 413. 
municipal   government,    210, 

211. 

opened  to  foreign  trade,  247. 
port      improvements,      280, 

281. 

suburbs,  410-18. 
Manila  hemp,  ride  abaca. 
Marinduque,  Island  of — 
physical  features,  resources, 

etc.,  50. 

population  and  area,  18. 
Mariveles,  396,  397. 
Masbate,  Island  of — 
cattle  industry,  478. 
physical  features,  resources, 

etc.,  51. 

population  and  area,  18. 
Mayon  volcano,  28,  29. 
Mestizos,  414-16. 
Mindanao,  Island  of— 
Basilan,  506-08. 
inhabitants,  493-506. 
Malay  invasion,  491-93. 
physical  features,  resources, 

etc.,  58-61,  491-508. 
population  and  area,  18. 
Mindoro,  Island  of — 
physical  features,  resources, 

etc.,  50. 

population  and  area,  18. 
refuge     of     criminals,     472, 

473. 
Minerals,    46,    48,    58,    68,    69, 

278,  385-89. 
Monteses,  465,  466. 


Moros — 

characteristics   and   manner 
of  living,  106-12. 

clash  with  Spaniards,  149. 

costumes  and  customs,  497- 
99. 

datos,  501. 

depredations,  471,  472. 

government,  113. 

invasion   of   southern    arch- 
ipelago, 491-93. 

juramentados,  499,  500. 

origin,  104. 

present  tribes,  495-97. 

religion    and     superstitions, 
502-05. 

social   organization,   493-95. 

various  tribes,  104-06. 
Municipal  government,  189-92, 
210,  211. 

Native  uprisings,   152-57,  168- 

72,  179. 
Negritos,  75-8. 
Negros,  Island  of — 
physical  features,  resources, 

etc.,  55,  56. 

population  and  area,  18. 
proposed  railroad.  56. 
sugar  industry,  473-75. 
Nipa,  346,  347. 
Nueva  Ecija,  Province  of,  38, 

39,  381-84. 

Nueva    Vizcaya,    Province    of, 
33,  381-84. 

Pacto    de    Biac-na-bate,    170, 

171. 

Palace,  404,  405. 
Palawan,  ride  Paragua. 
Pampanga,    Province    of,    37, 

38. 

Pampanga  River,  30,  31. 
Panay,  Island  of — 
capital,  466-71. 


INDEX. 


5G5 


Panay,    Island   of — Continued. 

physical  features,  resources, 
etc.,  56-8.. 

population  and  area,  18. 

proposed  railroad,  57. 
Pangasinan,    Province   of,    35, 

36. 
Paragua,  Island  of — 

physical   features,  etc.,  58. 

population  and  area,   18. 
Pasig  River,  31,  398,  399. 
Pearl  industry,  511-14. 
Philippine  Archipelago- 
agriculture,   285-345. 

climate,  69-71. 

commerce,  241-281. 

cultivated  area,  359,  3GO. 

early  history,  119-57. 

fauna  and  flora,  63-5. 

forest  lands,  361,  362. 

geographical  position  of,  17. 

inhabitants,   75-116. 

islands  contained  in,  18. 

minerals,  68. 

physical  features,  18-20. 

political,  social  and  eco- 
nomic conditions  reviewed 
in  addresses  of  Wm.  H. 

population,  112-16. 

public  lands,  358,  359. 

rivers,  20. 

Taft   (q.  i;.),  515-59. 
vegetable  products.  65, 
Population,  past  and  present, 

112-16. 
Ports.  280.  281,  466,  479,  481, 

511,  522. 

Postal  system,  220. 
Provincial     government,     184- 

86,  211,  212. 
Public    lands,    357,    358,    554, 

555. 

Railroads.   36,   ^9,   52,    53,   55, 

56,  57,  276-78,  248-50. 


Revenue,  225,  541. 
Rice,  67,  255,  256. 

varieties,  331,  332. 

yield,   332-34,   543,   544, 

Rio  Grande  de  Mindanao,  59, 

60. 

Rizal,  Jose,  163-68. 
Rizal,  Province  of,  40. 
Rubber  plant,  380,  381. 


Salcedo,  Juan,  124-26. 
Samals,   79,   80,   82,    104,    106, 

496. 
Samar,  Island  of — 

capital,  477. 

natural  beauties,  475-77. 

physical  features,  resources, 
etc.,  52. 

population  and  area,  18. 

remontados,  477. 
Santiago  fortress,  406-08. 
Siquijor,  Island  of,  484-86. 
Sorsogon,  Province  of,  48,  49. 
Spanish    administration,    180- 
200. 

alcaldes,  182,  184. 

audencia,  192-94. 

encomenderos,  181,  182. 

governors-general,  180,  181. 

judicial  system,   195-200. 

municipal  officials,  189-92. 

provincial  governors,  184-86. 
Spices,  67. 

Sugar,    66,    262,    269,    298-301, 
468,    469,    473-75,    482-544, 

Sulu    Archipelago,    vide    Sulu 

and  Tawi  Tawi. 
Sulu  City,  509-11. 
Sulu,  Island  of — • 
capital,  509-11. 
pearl  industry,  511-14. 
physical  features,  resources, 

etc.,  62. 
population  and  area,  18. 


566 


INDEX. 


Taal  volcano,  22,  23. 

story  of  eruption,  24-7. 
Taft,  Wm.  II.,  Review  of  po- 
litical,    social     and     eco- 
nomic   conditions    of    the 
Islands,   by,   515-59. 
Tagal  rebellion,  168-72. 
Tarlac,  Province  of,  37. 
Tawi  Tawi,  Islands  of— 
physical  features,  resources, 

etc.,  G2. 

population  and  area,  18. 
Tayabas,  Province  of,  43,  44. 
Tea,  68. 

Telegraph  and  telephone  sys- 
tems, 220,  221. 
Teosinte,  345,  346. 
Tobacco,  32,  66,  74,  270-72. 
as  an  Investment,  305-09. 
curing,  303,  304. 
method  of  cultivation,   801, 

302. 
Visayan,  469,  470,  544, 

Treaty  of  Paris,  176,  177. 
Tuba,    method    of    gathering, 
467,  468. 


Visayan  Islands,  vide  Mas- 
bate,  Leyte,  Samar,  Bo- 
hol,  Cebu,  Negros  and 
Panay,  463-514. 

banditti,  472,  473. 

boat-building,  487. 

characteristics    of    the    na- 
tives, 463-65. 

grazing  grounds,  478. 

Guimaras,  467-69. 

historic  sites,  479-83. 

Iloilo,  466-71. 

natural  beauties,  475-77. 

remontados,  478. 

Siquijor,  484-86. 

sugar  industry,  473-75. 
Visayans,     characteristics    of, 

463-65. 

Volcanoes,  vide  Taal,  Mayon 
and  Apo. 

Walled   City   of   Manila,   399- 

410. 

Water-power,  553. 
Weaving  industries,  470. 
Woods,    commercial,    65,    362- 

66. 

Zacate,  337. 

Zambales,  Province  of,  36,  37. 


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